You may have guessed it already: I’m a nerd. I love nerdy knowledge things like “Jeopardy!” and researching how prepositions work and why it’s so easy to get something so basic wrong. And, as you also may have guessed, the more I learned about what is a preposition and what is not, the more fascinated I got. Let’s dive in, and I hope you geek out as much as I did over some of the littlest and most important words in the English language.

 

 

What Is a Preposition?

Prepositions, like nouns and verbs, are such fundamental components of English that most native speakers have an innate understanding of their function.

To us, the concept appears simple.

Some of the most elementary prepositions, such as on, by, and to, often indicate a physical direction, movement or time direction, for example:

• on Wednesday
• by the TV studio
• to the left

Yet, the simple concept becomes quite a bit muddier when those same prepositions describe more abstract connections, such as:

• on sale
• by car
• to our knowledge

 

The Academic Preposition Definition

One of the eight major parts of speech, a preposition forms a connection to, refines or enhances the relationship between grammatical elements.

One such element is the object of the preposition. It nearly always follows and is directly governed by the preposition.

The grammatical function of the object must always be that of a noun, but it may be any of the following:

• A noun or pronoun
• A noun and its modifying adjectives (noun phrase)
• A verb ending in “-ing” (gerund)
• A gerund and its objects or modifiers (gerund phrase)
• A verb in the infinitive acting as a subject
• A prepositional phrase

The preposition and its object become a single grammatical unit. This unit, or prepositional phrase, can serve as an adjectival or adverbial modifier.

 

Basic Types and Preposition Examples

Having all of that committed to memory will serve you well if your last eight words were, “I’ll take Post-Graduate Linguistic Theory for $2,000, Alex.” But since it’s unlikely that either of us has selected that particular category on “Jeopardy!” let’s fall back on more palatable explanations and examples.

When a sentence component needs clarification or a more elaborate meaning, we can provide more detail by referring to people, places, items or ideas.

For instance, when my mom calls to ask me for details on our “Jeopardy” appearance, where she can park, and how to get to our set, simply saying “Wednesday,” “the TV studio,” and “the left” would still leave a lot of room for speculation and confusion.

So, we build prepositional phrases by combining the prepositional object, or the descriptive noun, with a preposition appropriate to the nature of the relationship between its object and the action it details.

• We are appearing on Wednesday.
• They should let you park right by the TV studio.
• Take the first corridor to the left.

Types of Prepositions

Prepositions can be divided into five basic types:

1. Simple Prepositions: Just like the three basic prepositions first mentioned (on, by, to), single-word simple prepositions are seen at the start of prepositional phrases and followed by the object either with or without an article.

    

2. Double Prepositions: Frequently, two simple prepositions are put together to combine their meanings and form a slightly more articulate preposition that often melds aspects of time, location and place to indicate a direction or movement.
3. Compound Prepositions: A compound preposition is a two- or three-word phrase that might consist entirely of prepositions (e.g., in front of, across from) or a combination of simple prepositions and other parts of speech, including articles and adjectives (e.g., in the middle of, in addition to). The entire phrase functions in the same way as a simple preposition.
4. Participle Prepositions: Past and present participles are verb forms that end in -ing, -d, or -ed. They can be used as prepositions in a variety of relationships.
5. Phrase Prepositions: Previously and henceforth referred to as prepositional phrases, phrase prepositions follow a formula of preposition + optional object modifier(s) + object. We will break prepositional phrases down in more detail later.

 

A Unique Preposition List

There are likely more than 150 words and phrases in the English language that can be used as prepositions in a variety of contexts. Many of the most common prepositions are easy to identify and will be specifically discussed later. The following preposition list includes some common and many unique words that may not be immediately recognized as prepositions.

Simple	Double	Compound	Participle
down	throughout	in back of	following
with	upon	along with	including
amid	opposite	up to	according to
versus	underneath	apart from	concerning
beyond	without	out of	provided
up	unlike	in front of	excepting
beside	despite	as for	regarding
minus	outside	on top of	excluded
aboard	inside	in case of	considering
till	except	by means of
among	within	instead of
like		except for
against		in spite of
about		in addition to
but		in place of
save

 

Why Are Prepositions So Important?

OK, so I haven’t actually been on “Jeopardy!” Still, I’ve watched it on TV a lot, and I’ve never failed to notice that there are 95 names on the credits roll, not including Alex Trebek. Those people exist behind the scenes, and I have no idea what they do. But without them, the show would come to a grinding halt.

Prepositions are so ubiquitous in speech and writing that they fade right into the context. It’s easy to take them for granted, if we notice them at all. Yet, they permeate every chapter of grammar and syntax, and without them, language would collapse into tiny, disconnected fragments.

 

1. Prepositions Help Connect Sentence Elements

Prepositions can form bridges that connect the elements of a sentence, most frequently in situations that connect intransitive verbs with an object.

Intransitive verbs are action verbs that can stand alone; in other words, they don’t need a direct object to complete their meaning. Here are a few examples in simple past tense:

• I searched.
• She responded.
• We agreed.

These verbs don’t always need a preposition linking them to a direct object; however, a preposition is often necessary to make the meaning clear:

• I searched for the answer to the clue I got wrong.
• Has she responded to you yet with the solution?
• We agreed with his assessment of our performance on “Jeopardy!”

These combinations are called prepositional verbs and have the defined structure of verb + preposition + direct object.

Referred to as dependent, the preposition that should be used is usually determined by the category of the relationship between the verb and the direct object; however, some prepositions are used for associations that are harder to define.

The table below outlines some of the relationships expressed by the prepositions more commonly used in prepositional verbs.

Preposition Examples

Relationship Category	Examples
Connection or Direction (from, to)	How did your answer differ from mine? I adjusted to constantly being in the limelight. Let’s go to the groundskeeper and apologize.
Purpose or Reason (for)	We’ve been working for this opportunity for years. The show producer will pay for our dinner.
Reference or Indication (about, at, in)	Don’t worry about the contest; you’ll do fine. I nodded at the suggestion to relax. I looked in my backpack for something to occupy my mind.
Connection or Relationship (in, with)	I don’t usually participate in events like this. Let’s start with Elementary Grammar for $100, please. I replied with deliberate intent.
Other (of, against, on)	Are you certain of your answer? He advises against “true Daily Doubles.” I’m relying on you to help me calm my nerves.

 

2. Prepositions Help Identify, Describe and Enhance Things and Ideas

Articulate communication often requires us to label or clarify ideas by indicating a connection or relationship to something else.

In particular, abstract nouns usually require a preposition to complete the expression:

• I took pleasure in the rare chance to see the sunrise.
• We don’t need a reason for being kind.
• All I could hear was the sound of my mom cheering for us.

We can use these pairings to identify, describe or enhance concepts, but there isn’t a structure that tells us which prepositions go with which nouns. Here are some everyday examples of noun + preposition combinations:

Preposition Examples

Prepositions	Examples
about	I had a premonition about your victory.
at [which]	I worried at the clue, trying to figure out the answer. That was the point at which you clinched your success.
between	The animosity between you and the runner-up was evident.
for	There’s only room for one champion on the stage.
from	My ambivalence was a departure from my normally competitive nature.
in	I saw a marked increase in your lead during the Double Jeopardy round.
of	Your banter with the host earned a round of laughter from the audience.
on	Funny — all of these categories have a focus on grammar.
to	Winning “Jeopardy!” proved her devotion to useless knowledge.
with	You are magnanimous with your compliments.

 

3. Prepositions Help Provide Embellishment and Variety

Prepositions are the superglue that allows us to assemble words into an infinite variety of poetic, ironic and absurdly funny expressions.

For example, when we want to round out or embellish an adjective that represents a concept, such as an emotion, opinion or state of being, prepositions join the elements:

• I am really nervous about the contest.
• How lovely of you to donate your prize money!
• The main floor is filled with audience members.

As with noun and verb pairs, the preposition, known as an adjective complement, will always directly follow the adjective.

Adjective + preposition combinations also have no defined method for pairing, although synonyms and antonyms often (but don’t always) share prepositions.

Preposition Examples

Prepositions	Examples
about	I’m excited about having dinner with the “Jeopardy!” producer afterward!
at	Are you good at wine selection?
by	We were enthralled by the eclectic menu.
for	This restaurant is known for having amazing food.
from	Why does your steak look different from my steak?
in	The producer was interested in hearing about us.
of	It was foolish of me to believe I could eat that whole steak.
to	I know you’re practically addicted to chocolate.
with	We were satisfied with how the day transpired.

 

Idioms

It’s routine to hear “literally” describe something that isn’t literal at all. But, really, colloquial English is so idiomatic that it can be hard to remember what the literal definition was.

Idioms are words or phrases that carry a connotation that can’t be defined by the actual meaning of the words. The presence of a preposition in a commonly recognized phrase is usually a pretty good clue that you’re looking at one:

• The invitation to “Jeopardy!” came out of the blue.
• By the way, my mom will be in the audience.
• Don’t try to play down your victory.

Since prepositional idioms are sayings that simply evolved over time, there really aren’t any rules besides their role as verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

Prepositional idioms that behave like standard verbs usually consist of a preposition that follows a verb and are called phrasal verbs.

Idioms	Definitions	Prepositional Idiom Examples
die down	to quieten	The cheering eventually died down.
buzz off	to leave, usually in annoyance	I wish that irritating kid would buzz off!
grow on	to slowly become tolerated	That irritating kid is starting to grow on me.
fed up	to become bored or exasperated	Are you getting fed up with “Jeopardy!” references?
come up with	to invent or construct	How do they come up with so many trivia questions?

 

Adjectival and adverbial idioms generally follow a preposition + noun format.

Idioms	Definitions	Prepositional Idiom Examples
at full tilt	as fast as possible	We took off from the groundskeeper at full tilt.
by a mile	with a significant gap	You beat me by a mile.
in spades	a great amount or extent	My mom has kindness in spades.
for a lark	for jest or impulse	I entered myself for “Jeopardy!” on a lark.
from the top	at the beginning	Start the intro again from the top.
on ice	postponed	I had to put my hobbies on ice while I studied.
out of gas	drained or fatigued	It’s been a stressful day, and I’m out of gas.

 

These few examples of idioms will help you get the idea, but they don’t even crack the surface: One collection contains over 60,000 idioms and phrases used in the English language.

 

Elementary Grammar for $100: “What Is a Preposition?”

Since I’ve already used so many words to explain words, I’ll sum up quickly. Prepositions are awesome because they are so critical to making our thoughts coherent, yet so elementary that we hardly notice that we are using them at all.

Did you get as excited over discussing “What is a preposition?” as I did? Let me know your thoughts below!

Comedic singer-songwriters aren’t usually high on my list of go-to references for grammar rules. Still, “Weird Al” Yankovic got a lot of them right in “Word Crimes.” He sings, “You should know when it’s less or it’s fewer.” This especially stirs my soul, as fewer vs. less is one of my favorite duos of commonly confused words. Like so many of the other rules that make English such an easy and popular language for in-depth study (ha!), the less vs. fewer grammar usage is straightforward, well-defined and littered with exceptions that make anyone wonder why grammarians bothered making rules for it in the first place.

 

 

Fewer vs. Less at a Glance

Let’s start with the primary definitions of fewer and less:

• fewer (adj.): a smaller number of persons or things
• less (adj.): constituting a more limited number or amount

So, both fewer and less mean virtually the same thing and, therefore, should be interchangeable. Straightforward? Not exactly.

 

 

What’s the Difference Between Fewer and Less?

Even if I had written this blog with fewer sarcasm and less personal anecdotes, it might still take a bit of effort to distinguish one from the other. For example, that last statement about sarcasm and personal anecdotes doesn’t sound quite right, but why not?

Before we can decide if we should use fewer or less, we need to determine if the noun it modifies is countable or not.

Countable nouns are, well, countable. Each word, such as rules, singer-songwriter and anecdote, is identifiable as a single unit, can be numbered definitively and has both a singular and plural form. For instance, if we count each loosely defined rule cited in “Word Crimes,” we get a total of 11 rules, which we indicate by using the plural rules instead of the singular rule.

By contrast, uncountable (or mass) nouns represent tangible but uncountable substances such as water or nature, or abstract ideas such as sarcasm. A quick and simple test for determining whether a noun is uncountable is to make it plural:

• Incorrect: My glass is more than half full with waters.
• Incorrect: I love hiking among the natures in my area.
• Incorrect: I considered adding more sarcasms to this blog.

Water, nature, and sarcasm should not be plural; therefore, they are uncountable nouns.

• Correct: My glass is more than half full with water.
• Correct: I love hiking among the nature in my area.
• Correct: I considered adding more sarcasm to this blog.

Armed with this information, we can now determine when to use fewer and when to use less. 

 

When To Use Fewer

Fewer means “a smaller number,” so we use it with countable nouns:

• English would be so much easier if there were fewer rules to remember.
• I like the originality of the musical comedy genre; other types seem to have fewer singer-songwriters in them.
• A lot of my friends would be happier if I used fewer personal anecdotes in my grammar arguments.

 

 

When To Use Less

Less means “a smaller amount,” so we use it with uncountable nouns:

• I’ve been drinking less water than I should every day.
• I’m finding a lot less nature in the city than I did in my rural hometown.
• Maybe this blog wouldn’t be as entertaining if it had less sarcasm in it.

Keep in mind, though, that this concept can get a little tricky when the uncountable nouns are quantified. For example, I may be drinking less water, but that also means that I drink fewer ounces of water. The distinguishing factor is that in the latter statement, fewer is actually modifying ounces, which is countable, and not water, which is uncountable.

 

 

 

When To Ignore the Rules

Of course, when we adhere to the strict definitions of fewer and less, it all makes sense. But pure logic is boring, so let’s throw in some exceptions where nouns that might be considered countable take the adjective less instead of fewer.

 

Weight

While pounds and other weight measurements are, by definition, quantifiable, the less than vs. fewer than rules don’t apply when talking about weight.

• Incorrect: A gallon of water weighs fewer than 10 pounds.
• Correct: Surprisingly, an English grammar rulebook also weighs less than 10 pounds.

 

Time

Similarly to weight measurements, time quantities are usually compared by using less rather than fewer:

• Incorrect: “Weird Al” Yankovic attended school for fewer than 13 years, having graduated at age 16.
• Correct: It took “Weird Al” Yankovic less than 40 years to release an album that topped the charts, but that’s still a really long time.

 

Money

Although money is totaled in dollars and cents, it is still often viewed as an uncountable total, which can be a useful tip when trying to remember fewer vs. less than:

• Incorrect: You can buy a “Weird Al” Yankovic album for fewer than $20.
• Correct: The single “Word Crimes” costs less than $2 on iTunes.

 

 

Fewer vs. Less: Fewer Word Crimes, Less Embarrassment

Honestly, if you’re doing any kind of professional writing, I wouldn’t recommend relying on parody artists for grammar guidelines. Concepts such as fewer vs. less can seem simple enough, but they get convoluted quickly. This is especially the case because incorrect usage often sounds correct. Have you ever confused fewer with less? Whether it slipped notice or made others groan in agony, we want to hear about it in the comments below!

I could probably wax theoretical for months on why the incorrect use of prepositions is so prevalent, but the best answer is simple: Prepositions can be flat-out confusing. For instance, how can we be at the park but on the corner? How is it that we are in a car but on a bus?

 

Examples of Incorrect Use of Prepositions

The many nuances and exceptions in preposition usage would make a great topic for the post-graduate thesis on linguistic theory that I’ve always dreamed of writing.

This is only one blog, though, so I’ll focus on a few of my favorites.

An Interchangeable Preposition Becomes an Incorrect Preposition

There are instances when the meaning of two prepositions in certain contexts is so similar that they are virtually interchangeable:

• I pointed at the TV studio from across the street.
• I pointed to the TV studio from across the street.

Both at and to are similar in that they represent spatial relationships. They differ in that at refers to a static location while to refers to a direction. Although pointed at means “to indicate a place” and pointed to means “to indicate the relative direction of a place,” the distinction is such a minor difference in explicit intent that it doesn’t matter in most cases.

The trouble is that this subtlety doesn’t carry over into different frameworks. For instance:

• We arrived at the studio 20 minutes early.
• We arrived to the studio 20 minutes early.

Arrived at and arrived to are commonly used combinations, but unlike pointed at and pointed to, one of them is an incorrect preposition example.

To point is a dynamic verb, which means that it conveys a continuous action. To arrive, on the other hand, is a stative verb; it represents a single occurrence with no indication of further action.

Since to represents continuous movement or direction, it cannot be used to connect arrived with the studio. It would be like saying that we are no longer traveling to the place and that we’re still moving toward it.

The Preposition To Versus To in an Infinitive Verb

The full form of an infinitive is the base of the verb and preceded by to.

• To appear
• To compete
• To win

In this form, the verb becomes more like a concept and acts in a sentence like a noun, adjective or adverb.

• To appear on “Jeopardy!” is a dream of mine.
• It is a challenge to compete on “Jeopardy!”
• I’m going to win!

The most common situation in which infinitive verbs cause confusion with prepositions is when a choice must be made between into and in to. A quick check can usually be made by remembering that a preposition can never be followed by a verb.

Prepositions as the Final Word

One grammar myth that I believed for decades beyond my academic years was that I should never, and I mean never, end a sentence with a preposition as this would be an incorrect use of prepositions.

But that is not unequivocally true. The governing principles for determining if a preposition at the end of a sentence is acceptable are conciseness and clarity. In other words, if eliminating the preposition changes the context, or if moving it to a more “correct” position in the sentence results in clumsy phrasing, it is fine right where it is.

Here are several common examples of prepositions heard in everyday speech that illustrate these concepts with varying degrees. Some are considered examples of incorrect use of prepositions in error.

• Where are you from?

If we omit the preposition, we’re left with “Where are you?” This means something measurably different. We could restructure the sentence to “From where are you?” or perhaps “From where do you come?” However, the awkward phrasing compromises clarity.

• Where are you going to?

This one lands in a grey area. When we test redundancy by removing to, we’re left with a phrase that means the same thing — almost. “Where are you going?” infers that I either think or know that you’re leaving but have no knowledge of your intent or destination. However, to indicates movement toward a specific point. Including “to” adds the subtle distinction that I already know that you have an objective, and I want to know what it is. “Where are you going to?” is grammatically accurate; the more important takeaway is to articulate your meaning.

• Where are you at?

After applying the litmus test by removing at, it is clear that the preposition is redundant. Unfortunately, this is a widespread colloquialism used by a lot of people who probably know better.

There are instances where a preposition is grammatically required as the last word of a sentence because it is part of a greater whole.

• Appearing on “Jeopardy!” is something I yearned for.

In this sentence, yearned for is a prepositional verb. For is necessary to connect the intransitive verb yearned to the subject appearing on “Jeopardy!”, which receives the action in the passive voice.

• Did you hear my answer? I think my microphone is acting up.

The preposition up combined with acting forms the phrasal verb acting up, which has the unique, idiomatic definition of “malfunctioning.”

Prepositional and phrasal verbs both function as single units, and the prepositions cease to function as prepositions after being incorporated into their new grammatical elements.

 

Incorrect Preposition Use: Consider the Audience

The caveat to tacking necessary prepositions onto the ends of sentences is that your audience matters. In almost all types of modern writing, the practice is acceptable.

You should note, however, that if you are creating a formal composition such as a press release about your appearance on “Jeopardy!” or a post-graduate thesis on prepositions in linguistic theory, you may wish to take the extra steps and avoid anything that will be deemed incorrect preposition use by an authority figure who isn’t as grammar-savvy as we are.

Winning a baseball game is impossible with only one type of player, and articulate writing is impossible with only one part of speech. Nouns are nuanced but one-dimensional, strings of adjectives are colorful but tedious, and prepositional phrases paint a picture but lack a certain je ne sais quoi. Winning writers need a full lineup of descriptive devices, and like baseball has five-tool position players, grammar has relative clauses.

 

What Is a Relative Clause?

Also known as adjectival clauses, relative clauses are noun modifiers that contain a subject and an action, combining grammar tools such as adjectives and prepositions with verbs to form a comprehensive description.

Relative Clause Definition

Use this relative clause definition as a different way to look at this concept:

relative clause (noun): A subordinate clause that adds crucial or supplementary information by functioning as an adjective that modifies a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence

 

How Are Relative Clauses Identified?

Relative clauses are subordinate (dependent) clauses, which means that although they have a subject and a predicate, they don’t have the structure necessary to function alone as a complete sentence. They act like adjectives and will always follow the noun that they describe.

There are two types of signal words that mark the start of relative clauses:

• Relative pronouns: That, which, who, whom, and whose are the subject of the relative clause and add information about who or what the sentence is about.
• Relative adverbs: These modify the verb in the predicate of the relative clause and tell us when, where or why something took place.

 

How Do Relative Clauses Function in a Sentence?

A simple sentence is one independent clause. An independent clause has a subject and a predicate. An independent clause can function alone. We could converse in simple sentences. We would sound like robots.

One method of breaking verbal monotony is to add descriptive relative clauses that have the necessary structure to convey broad, active and complex ideas.

1. Relative Clause Examples: Adding Information Quickly and Logically

Imagine the radio broadcast of a baseball game, where details make all the difference. Without them, the descriptions of players, locations and actions leave us with a lot of questions:

• The batter missed the fastball. (What fastball?)
• The umpire missed the play at home plate. (Who was the umpire?)
• The second base player hasn’t recovered from the inning. (The inning when what happened?)
• The outfielder leaped into the stands. (Where in the stands?)

Good sports broadcasters know that they can’t hear or answer listeners’ questions through the radio. Better broadcasters know that backtracking to add detail can be confusing. So, they are great sources for relative clause examples that quickly add information when it makes the most sense to do so.

2. Relative Pronouns: Indicating Who or What Something Is

Whenever we need to add clarification by describing who or what, we can convert independent clauses into subordinate relative clauses by replacing either the subject or object noun/pronoun with one of the five relative pronouns.

Relative Pronoun:	Replaces:	Independent Clause & Converted Subordinate Relative Clause:
that	subject or object	The fastball makes this pitcher hard to beat. … that makes this pitcher hard to beat.
which	subject or object	The outfield wall is covered with ivy. … which is covered with ivy.
who	subject	The umpire collided with the pitcher. … who collided with the pitcher.
whom	object	The catcher threw the runner out. … whom the catcher threw out.* (*Note the altered word order.)
whose	subject or object	The batter’s stance looks odd. … whose stance looks odd.

By inserting the converted relative clause into the sentence after the noun it is meant to describe, we have one complex sentence with all the information we need:

• The batter missed the fastball that makes this pitcher hard to beat.
• The ball sailed over the outfield wall, which is covered with ivy.
• The umpire who collided with the pitcher missed the play at home plate.
• The runner whom the catcher threw out stalked into the dugout.
• The batter whose stance looks odd is one of the best hitters in the league.

3. Relative Adverbs: Describing When, Where or Why Something Happened

Sometimes the best way to clarify or embellish a noun of a sentence is to indicate one of the following characteristics with a relative adverb:

• time or event with when
• location or state with where
• reason or explanation with why

Relative clauses can be built directly on the noun they need to describe with this formula: noun + relative adverb + subject + predicate.

Noun:	Relative Adverb:	Subject:	Predicate:
the inning	when	she	was hit by a line drive
the stands	where	the wall	was lowest
the reason	why	the manager	pulled the pitcher from the game

Then, we place the relative clause immediately after the noun it describes:

• The second base player hadn’t recovered from the inning when she was hit by a line drive.
• The outfielder leaped into the stands where the wall was lowest.
• We can’t imagine the reason why the manager pulled the pitcher from the game.

 

Are Relative Clauses Essential or Nonessential?

Rules guide the word choice and punctuation of subordinate clauses. All relative clauses are subordinate clauses, and their structure is dictated by whether the information they provide is essential or nonessential to the sentence’s meaning.

1. Restrictive Clauses

Relative clauses that add contextually essential information are restrictive clauses. Think of a restrictive clause as the play-by-play baseball commentary; without it, we would have a hard time knowing what was happening in the game.

• Correct: The runner whom the catcher threw out stalked into the dugout.

Without the relative clause, we don’t know who the runner is; therefore, the information is essential and the clause restrictive.

It often feels natural to insert a mental pause or process clauses that add details as separate ideas, but resist the temptation to punctuate; restrictive clauses are never set off by commas.

• Incorrect: The pitcher, who was to start the first inning, walked onto the mound.

There is more than one pitcher in a baseball game, so it’s not logical to say the pitcher without adding more information. So, this clause is restrictive, and the commas are incorrect.

• Correct: The team that has the home-field advantage always bats in the bottom half of innings.

Without this clause, we wouldn’t know which of the two teams is meant; therefore, it is restrictive and punctuated correctly.

As relative pronouns, that and which may seem interchangeable, but they are not.

• Incorrect: The team which has the home-field advantage always bats in the bottom half of innings.
• Correct: The team that has the home-field advantage always bats in the bottom half of innings

Some people consider it acceptable to use which for restrictive clauses. However, when communicating in a professional setting or writing content like web pages or blogs for public consumption, it is best practice to err on the side of formal; reserve that for restrictive and which for nonrestrictive relative clauses.

2. Nonrestrictive Clauses

If restrictive clauses are like the play-by-play, nonrestrictive (nonessential) relative clauses are like the color commentary. They add noteworthy details that are not logically necessary for the sentence to make sense. Nonrestrictive clauses are set off with commas and may begin with any relative pronoun or adverb except that.

• Correct: This stadium, which was recently expanded, seats almost 50,000 spectators.

This sentence illustrates one particular stadium’s seating capacity. If we remove the clause, it’s still clear how fans will fit in it.

• Incorrect: The southernmost entrance gate that has a hall of famer’s statue next to it had a line of people waiting to get in.

The statue tells us which gate is meant, but we’ve already defined it with the modifier southernmost. Mentioning the statue is extra, nonessential information, and the clause structure needs to be corrected by adding commas:

• Correct: The southernmost entrance gate, which has a hall of famer’s statue next to it, had a line of people waiting to get in.

Relative Clauses: ‘Five-Tool’ Adjectives

Relative clauses describe a noun by integrating its surroundings, characteristics and actions, so they’re like play-by-play and color commentary at the same time. A baseball game could be described as the one “last Wednesday” or the one “when a new home-run record was set.” Clarification is often essential, and with relative clauses, we can provide details with elements of the greater whole.

Do you relish slinging curve balls with descriptive relative clauses, or do you prefer pitching down the pipe with tools such as simple adjectives or prepositional phrases? Share your thoughts with GrammarSpot readers and writers below!

There’s almost a beauty to the overlapping of categorizations in the Venn diagram of nouns. Teenagers are concrete and countable. But, as a party of children, they become singular even though a party is a group by definition, and children is always plural. Whether nominalizations, abstract, plural, collective, concrete, or singular, all must fall into one of these two categories: countable and uncountable nouns.

 

What Is the Difference Between Countable and Uncountable Nouns?

We have names for every organic and inorganic object, feeling, concept and idea — and when we don’t have one, we usually just make one up. These words are nouns, and as they represent either an individual object or indeterminate mass, we label them as either countable or uncountable.

1. Countable Nouns

People, places, things and concepts represented as individual units are countable nouns. The word noun, for example, is a countable noun. We can count two nouns in a phrase or thousands in a dictionary.

Countable nouns can be living things, inanimate objects or abstract ideas, as long as they can be counted separately:

• A teenager
• Fifty friends
• One party
• Two parents
• Three punishments

2. Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns, yes, cannot be counted. They often name amorphous substances, physical yet formless elements, or intangible concepts:

• Punch
• Confetti
• Music
• Ambiance
• Fury

It may help to remember that uncountable nouns are also referred to as mass nouns, and therefore cannot be expressed as six thousand confettis, fifteen musics or one hundred furies — no matter how angry the teenager’s parents were.

 

Is There a Method in the Countable vs Uncountable Nouns List?

Taking some of the other noun types into account can help establish patterns that are useful for methodically sorting words into a countable vs uncountable nouns list.

1. Concrete Nouns

My favorite litmus test for concrete nouns is, “Well, can you kick it?” Concrete nouns are tangible; they can be seen, be heard, or have at least some physical traits. Most concrete nouns are countable, but there are a few exceptions.

Countable Concrete:	Examples:
lizards	I have nine lizards in the tank.
budgerigar	Those seven budgerigars are noisy!
ferret	I think our ferret is hiding.
peacock	The peacock would rather strut than hide.

Uncountable Concrete:	Examples:
flour	How much flour do we need?
oil	Stir in the oil.
batter	Mix the batter until it’s smooth.
butter	We need butter to grease the pan.

2. Abstract Nouns

Virtually any noun that doesn’t fall within the physical realm is abstract. These intangible things often represent feelings, ideas, concepts and characteristics, to name a few. Although abstract nouns are not tangible, it is common for many of them to represent individual units. Still, the larger portion of abstract nouns consists of uncountable nouns.

Countable Abstract:	Examples:
friendship	He made several new friendships.
loss	He felt her loss very deeply.
pleasure	Making him laugh is one of her greatest pleasures.
liberty	She has taken many liberties with our trust.

Uncountable Abstract:	Examples:
brilliance	The brilliance of your idea is astounding.
luck	Could we have any better luck?
calm	I fear this is the calm before the storm.
clarity	In a moment of clarity, I saw the answer.

3. Collective Nouns

The last category of countable nouns vs uncountable nouns is collective nouns, which name groups of living or inanimate objects. They have some peculiar grammatical quirks, but like other types of nouns, some of them are countable and can take both singular and plural forms:

• There are actually five skydivers on a four-way skydiving team, and sixty teams are competing this year.
• Before the U.S. built ships for its navy, the British and Spanish navies battled for centuries.

Other collective nouns are uncountable, no matter if they are grammatically treated as singular or plural:

• Singular: Poultry is my favorite meat.
• Incorrect: I like all poultries, especially Cornish hen.
• Correct: I like all poultry, especially Cornish hen.
• Plural: The cattle are grazing on the prairie.
• Incorrect: Two kinds of cattles are Black Angus and Texas longhorn.
• Correct: Two kinds of cattle are Black Angus and Texas longhorn.

 

What Difference Does Countable Nouns vs Uncountable Nouns Make in Grammar?

Determining which countable and uncountable nouns comprise the subject lays the grammatical foundation for parallel structure throughout a sentence.

1. Singular or Plural

Countable nouns can take singular or plural forms:

• Is Erica your only teenager, or are all three kids of yours teenagers?
• She invited fifty friends, but only one friend came to the party.

A specific singular or plural noun can be identified by the definite article the, while generic or nonspecific singular nouns are indicated by the indefinite articles a and an:

• The parties she threw were never supervised by a parent.
• Erica knew that successfully keeping the party a secret from her parents would be an achievement.

Uncountable nouns, however, represent a mass or collection of something and are always treated as singular nouns:

• Incorrect: Some of the confettis fell into their punches.
• Correct: Some of the confetti fell into their punch.

Yet, even though uncountable nouns are always grammatically singular, they do not refer to an individual item. As such, we cannot use indefinite articles with them:

• Incorrect: For an ambiance, Erica put on a music that everyone could dance to.
• Correct: For ambiance, Erica put on music that everyone could dance to.

If we are referring to a particular ambiance or music, though, we can use the to indicate our intent:

• Erica knew that the music would generate the ambiance that would get the party going.
• If they came home early, Erica knew that the fury her parents expressed would be unimaginable.

2. Subject and Verb Agreement

Balance plays a foundational role in grammar. Subject and verb agreement with countable and uncountable nouns is a rudimentary example of balance in parallel structure.

Since countable nouns can take either singular or plural forms, their verbs must match with their own singular or plural conjugations:

• That kitten is stalking something only it can see.
• Nine lizards live in a habitat aquarium.
• If hungry, the peacock will try to eat a lizard.
• However, the lizards will scamper out of reach.
• The budgerigars did not like the ferret, and the ferret does not like the peacock.

Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, are always grammatically singular and take the singular form, so they cannot take plural verbs:

• Incorrect: All the flour are in that bowl.
• Correct: All the flour is in that bowl.
• Incorrect: The butter have melted.
• Correct: The butter has melted.
• Incorrect: The batters will go bad soon.
• Correct: The batter will go bad soon.

What happens if we need to make an uncountable noun plural? For instance, if we have a lot of oil, how do we indicate which kind is the right one for our recipe?

It’s right there in the sentence — we can add a countable noun, such as kind, and use oil with a preposition:

• I have six different kinds of oil.
• We need two cups of water.
• I bought a five-pound bag of flour.

3. Quantifiers

Most of the errors that writers make with countable and uncountable nouns happen when we need to quantify them. Certain modifiers are specific to either one or the other.

Number vs Amount

Whether to specify a number or an amount of something is pretty straightforward: Countable nouns can be quantified with a number, so by default, uncountable nouns have to be measured in an amount.

• Incorrect: What amount of budgerigars did you buy?
• Correct: What number of budgerigars did you buy?
• Incorrect: What number of flour does the batter need?
• Correct: What amount of flour does the batter need?

Fewer vs Less

Fewer and less are two of the most commonly confused words in English. The trick is to remember that you can only have a fewer number of items and less of an amount of a mass.

• Incorrect: Erica had less than fifty guests.
• Correct: Erica had fewer than fifty guests.
• Incorrect: I use fewer salt than I used to.
• Correct: I use less salt than I used to.

Many vs Much

Finally, pairing many vs much with countable nouns vs uncountable nouns is as easy as turning it into a simple Q&A: How many? This number. How much? This amount.

• Incorrect: How much lizards did the peacock eat?
• Correct: How many lizards did the peacock eat?
• Incorrect: How many batter do you need for two cakes?
• Correct: How much batter do you need for two cakes?

Countable and Uncountable Nouns All Still Count Even if They Can’t Be Counted

Every English noun falls rather neatly into the categories of countable and uncountable nouns. Which means, of course, that there are nouns that switch from countable to uncountable with the barest breath of shift in context. Can you come up with any not-so-clear-cut countable or uncountable examples? Here’s one to get you started: The hair on my head is uncountable, but the hairs on my shirt sleeve are.

There’s a certain allure to the art of astutely employing literary techniques such as alliteration. It can be subtle or blatant, funny or beautiful, and as enjoyable to write as it is to read. It’s a technique most often emphasized in creative writing, but it’s also an excellent tool for any type of content title, and you can still work it into more formal content if it doesn’t sound too forced. Best of all, even though you can blog with an open thesaurus to inject as many instances into your work as possible to illustrate your point, much of the best alliteration happens naturally.

 

 

The Alliteration Definition

The early 1600s saw the first recorded use of the word alliteration, which was derived from latira, or “letters of the alphabet” in Latin. Its modern alliteration definition is as follows:

• alliteration (n.): the repeated use of the same consonants or consonantal sounds at the beginning of at least two words in a phrase or clause.

So, wait a second; does “the same consonants or consonantal sounds” mean that my adroitly assembled archetypes aren’t actually true examples of alliteration?

I’m only human, so I did what most humans do when they’re confronted with the possibility of being wrong: I found an alternative alliteration definition that is much more agreeable to my existing understanding. (After all, I do proclaim to possess a prowess with prose.)

• alliteration (n.): the repeated use of a particular consonant or vowel sound at the beginning of at least two words in a line of poetry or prose (consonantal and vocalic alliteration, respectively).

There. Now I feel better.

 

So, Exactly What Is Alliteration?

Alliteration is the process of forming a phrase full of words that all begin with the same letter, syllable, or series of syllables that sound the same. There are two types of alliteration and some other literary devices that are similar enough to warrant a brief description of the differences.

1. Consonantal Alliteration

Consonantal alliteration is a series of words that all begin with the same consonant. For example:

• Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
• She sells seashells by the seashore.
• But a bit of better butter will make my bitter batter better.

2. Vocalic Alliteration

Vocalic alliteration is a grouping of words that all begin with the same vowel, such as:

• I acquired an award for my amazing application of alliteration.
• Everybody you’ve ever encountered will be at this event.
• Intelligence and ingenuity in the same instant are infrequent incidents.

There is some debate among linguists as to whether vocalic alliteration is a true form of alliteration, however. I disagree, but all of the examples in this blog that I found while doing research begin with consonants, and I had to invent examples that start with vowels, for whatever that’s worth.

3. Consonance and Assonance

Consonance is the repetition of consonants or consonantal sounds throughout a phrase. For example, “If she love me, this believe, I will die ere she shall grieve,” is a line from the poem “Shall I Wasting in Despair” by George Wither.

Assonance, which is the repetitive use of the same vowel sounds in a series or words, is also commonly found in poetry and song lyrics. For instance, Pink Floyd’s “Granchester Meadows” contains the line, “In the sky a bird was heard to cry.”

The primary difference between alliteration and consonance and assonance is that, by definition, the repetition must be in the first letters or syllables in alliteration, where it can occur anywhere in the word with consonance and assonance.

Alliteration Examples — Adding Poignancy to Poetry, Poetry to Prose and Prose to Permanence

A fictional poet in “The West Wing” TV series offered that “an artist’s job is to captivate you for however long we’ve asked for your attention.” As one of the more stylistic literary devices, alliteration helps creative writers bewitch audiences by adding musicality to their poetry and prose, making it more enjoyable to read and recite. It also carries with it a certain functionality by helping writers hook their readers with clever wordplay.

 

Edgar Allen Poe

For example, Edgar Allen Poe is famous for his singsong rhythms, and “The Raven” is just one of his many works that demonstrate the use of consonantal alliteration:

“Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, —

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping.”

 

Shel Silverstein

Shel Silverstein was especially fond of the delightful bounce that alliteration supplied in his children’s poetry; “Standing Is Stupid” is an excellent example:

“Standing is stupid,

Crawling’s a curse,

Skipping is silly,

Walking is worse.”

 

J.K. Rowling

In her books about Harry Potter, Hogwarts, and the wider wizarding world, J.K. Rowling applies numerous literary devices so expertly that college students have used her seven-book series as the subject for theses. Her use of alliteration achieves assorted aims: It adds a poetic flow to the narrative, injects humor into otherwise dour circumstances, and gives young readers mnemonic tools for recall and association.

• “Eyes streaming, he swayed, trying to focus on the street to spot the source of the noise, but he had barely staggered upright…”
• “…vanished from view before Uncle Vernon’s voice…”
• “’Silence!’ snapped Snape.”
• The four founders of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry: Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin

 

Non-English

Alliteration is not necessarily limited to English, either. Consider the following Spanish tongue-twister, or trabalengua:

“’¡Mañana, mañana!’ me llama mamá,

‘Hay leche y pan y papá ya está.’”

Go ahead and run it through an online translator if you wish, but trust me — the English version is not nearly as much fun to say.

 

 

Mnemonics

Old English literature made extensive use of alliteration, and not exclusively for its artistic effect. Poems such as “Beowulf” were passed orally from generation to generation, and alliteration served as a mnemonic device to help storytellers memorize long lines of narrative.

“He was four times a father, this fighter prince.”

According to psychology experts, the repetitive linguistic cues that are the basis of alliteration add a deeper level to the thing we are trying to remember as they are stored through a process called acoustic encoding. Brand marketers frequently take advantage of alliteration’s subtle yet powerful effect on our ability to recall the names of companies, products, and characters, among other things.

 

Companies	Bed, Bath & Beyond Weight Watchers Dunkin Donuts Best Buy
Products	Jujubes Captain Crunch Armor-All Tater Tots Coca-Cola Grey Goose
Alter Egos	Clark Kent Peter Parker Bucky Barnes Lois Lane Bruce Banner
Sports	Pittsburgh Pirates Boston Bruins New Jersey Nets Seattle Seahawks Super Bowl Sunday
Events	Million Man March Golden Globes Beach Blanket Babylon

The Allure of Alliteration

Alliteration is not just for audiences, either. As a writer, you may often come across opportunities to drop in a synonym and smile at your ingenuity. Even if the average reader doesn’t fully appreciate what you’re doing, your fellow wordsmiths will.

I did have a bit of trouble finding decent vocalic alliteration examples in famous literary works. Still, I’m sure my obnoxiously overdone utilization of alliteration throughout this blog has made its execution excruciatingly evident.

Can you recall any famous passages that make use of vocalic alliteration? Share your favorite all-time example of any type of alliteration in the comments!

Like virtually every other Gemini I know, I have the ability to appreciate almost any perspective on a given debate. The proper use of popular portmanteaus in professional writing is a prime example.

 

What Is a Portmanteau?

A portmanteau is a word that is blended from parts of other words. To illustrate what a portmanteau is, you need only look outside on a cloudy, hot summer day during forest fire season and remark on all the smog (a term that blends both smoke and fog) out there.

 

The Portmanteau Debate

On the one hand, I adore portmanteaus. I love playing real-time games trying to consolidate the overly wordy phrases that I encounter in everyday literature. (I think Hagrid the best Caremagicreacher in Hogwart’s history) I think that precisely blended terms like hangry feel natural and get straight to the point. Combining velvet and crochet to form Velcro is innovative, and marrying happening and circumstance together for happenstance is both creative and economical.

On the other hand, the purist in me can be pretty snobby about words needlessly shoved together on the spot and then trended into pop-culture conversation. Still, if you love gossiping about Brangelina or if you feel that ridonkulous is the only way to describe your best friend’s most recent Twitter post adequately, I won’t be judgmental.

I’m not alone on either side. Evolutionary linguists believe that portmanteaus are a part of a language that morphs with society’s needs. If you want evidence, just compare English writer Shakespeare with J.K. Rowling. I bet you already know which author you could read without a translation.

Yet, others find portmanteaus quite irritating and have no reservations about making their feelings known. Whatever your personal opinion, you will use them as a writer, knowingly or not, and the trolls out there will be sure to let you know if they think you’ve done it correctly.

My go-to for all things grammar-related is the AP Stylebook, and it does not have a hard rule on when portmanteaus are appropriate. So, let’s stand on neutral ground and work out some common-sense guidelines.

 

Popular Portmanteau Examples

It seems like there’s a never-ending flood of new words popping up to describe contemporary issues (screenager), recent events (Brexit) or products (Botox) that just didn’t exist until now.

Depending on where you do the bulk of your communicating, a portmanteau that is commonplace to you may not be recognized outside of your niche or literary circle. Most often, you probably want your writing to sound intelligent before everything else, so do the legwork to determine if your portmanteau is a legitimate word or at least a generally acknowledged slang term.

 

1. Everyday Portmanteau Examples

Each year, popular portmanteaus are incorporated into official lexicons. This has already been happening for decades at a minimum, and many of these combinations are now so generally accepted that many people don’t realize that they are actually portmanteaus. Here is a list of common portmanteaus used in everyday speech:

avionics (aviation/electronics)		infomercial (information/commercial)
breathalyzer (breath/analyzer)		knowledgebase (knowledge/database)
brunch (breakfast/lunch)		meld (melt/weld)
camcorder (camera/recorder)		motorcade (motor/cavalcade)
carjack (car/hijack)		scuzzy (scum/fuzzy)
cellophane (cellulose/diaphane)		shopaholic (shopper/alcoholic)
chortle (chuckle/snort)		smog (smoke/fog)
clasp (clutch/grasp)		splatter (splash/spatter)
dumbfound (dumb/confounded)		taxicab (taximeter/cabriolet)
electrocution (electricity/electrocution)		telethon (television/marathon)
flare (flame/glare)

 

 

2. Niche Portmanteaus

Every niche has unique jargon, and it’s often logical and expeditious to shorten common terms to make communication easier. The science and medical industries often find portmanteaus useful tools for a plainer language. Here are some portmanteau examples in these industries:

bionics (biology/electronics)

cyborg (cybernetic/organism)

endorphin (endogenous/morphine)

genome (gene/chromosome)

hazmat (hazardous/material)

oxidant (oxidizing/agent)

pulsar (pulsating/quasar)

 

Hybrid animal portmanteaus are also rather scientific. The modern trend of designer-dog breeding is an especially great example of how name-blending can simplify classification:

chipin (Chihuahua/miniature pinscher)

cockapoo (cocker spaniel/poodle)

Labradoodle (Labrador retriever/poodle)

Maltipoo (Maltese/poodle)

puggle (pug/beagle)

 

A lot of tech terms are portmanteaus, streamlined to make them easier for laypeople to understand and remember:

blog (web/log)

internet (international/network)

malware (malicious/software)

netiquette (internet/etiquette)

pixel (picture/element)

podcast (iPod/broadcast)

webinar (World Wide Web/seminar)

 

 

3. Trademark Portmanteaus

Corporate and trademark portmanteaus are a perfect storm of my fascination with advertising psychology and creative wordsmithing. The goal of these portmanteau examples is to provide an immediately memorable name that simultaneously describes its purpose:

Bisquick (biscuit/quick)

Botox (botulism/toxin)

Groupon (group/coupon)

Intel (integrated/electronics)

Jazzercise (jazz music/exercise)

Microsoft (microcomputer/software)

Pinterest (pushpin board/interest)

TaeBo (tae-kwon-do/boxing)

 

 

4. Slang and Pop-Culture Portmanteaus

Probably the most likely to be short-lived portmanteaus are ideas that mutate into slang and are repeated throughout pop-culture and social media posts. These examples are also the ones that you’ll want to use carefully and intentionally to maintain a professional tone:

biopic (biography/motion picture)

Bollywood (Bombay/Hollywood)

Frankenfood (Frankenstein/food)

frenemy (friend/enemy)

ginormous (giant/enormous)

glamping (glamorous/camping)

metrosexual (metropolitan/heterosexual)

mockumentary (mock/documentary)

 

There are too many popular portmanteaus to list in a single article, and many of them are open to interpretation. Whenever I’m in doubt, I look up the word in the dictionary; if Merriam-Webster says it’s a word, it’s fair game.

If not, I strongly consider how and why I’m going to use the word. Am I adding real value to my blog by labeling my best friend’s Twitter post as ridonkulous, or would an existing word like inane work just as well.

How To Use Portmanteaus in Professional Writing

I am absolutely guilty of using the word ginormous when I exaggerate in casual conversation, which is pretty much all the time. However, this is the first instance where I’ve used it professionally, and it is a perfect example of context and intention.

As a professional writer, you’ve likely already experienced the power of the printed word and how its misuse can go drastically wrong. Before you place popular portmanteaus in your content, you need to fully understand the term’s meaning, appreciate the contextual value and understand the potential implications.

 

1. News and Informational Articles

Formal news and informational pieces are fact-based and generally opinion-free articles. Circumventing portmanteaus altogether can result in clumsy content, but it’s still wise to stick to terms most widely accepted in standard vocabulary.

Avoid slang unless you’re using it in a direct quote, even if it is in the dictionary. When trying to determine if a legitimate portmanteau is suitable for formal writing, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is the portmanteau the plainest and most precise word possible?
• Is there a better term or phrase with a more neutral connotation?
• Have other reliable sources used the portmanteau?
• Is the portmanteau appropriate to the genre and likely to be understood?

Words such as avionics, motorcade and mockumentary are fine for articles about airplane production, presidential visits and new movie releases, respectively. However, the portmanteau Obamacare should probably be forgone in favor of the Affordable Care Act, and keytar ought not to appear outside of a 1980s New Wave music review.

 

2. SEO and Blog Content

It’s essential to be careful with SEO and blog content because a wide variety of styles and tones might be used. For example, sports portmanteaus like heli-skiing that are commonplace on extreme athletics websites may be completely inappropriate on youth sports blogs. It all depends on client preferences, creative license and how you want your writing style to be perceived.

An exceptional content writer can embody different personalities and switch effortlessly between vernaculars that are most likely to be understood by the targeted audiences. The rest of us aren’t quite there yet, so the key here is reading and research.

If you’re writing informative content for a doctor’s website, scan medical articles. You’ll see that portmanteaus like endorphin and oxidant are generally standard, pregnesia is not and diabesity is questionable at best. However, if the doctor’s target demographic is college-aged young women, a quick read of previous posts may reveal that it’s fitting to discuss tips for staving off illness while glamping or the health risks of becoming a workaholic.

 

3. Social Media Posts

Social media posts tend to be the most informal, and casual or slangy writing including portmanteaus generally won’t be a problem. Still, you need to be relatable to your readers.

A tech audience may understand posts about netiquette in the blogosphere, but senior adults might not. A senior audience also isn’t likely to appreciate advice on how chillaxing with their frenemies might improve their retirement neighborhood relationships.

However, another consideration is that you want instantly engaging social media posts, and clever portmanteaus are an excellent way to accomplish that. (“Attention, Gryffindors! Vote for your favorite Caremagicreacher here!”)

 

To Use or Not To Use Portmanteaus

Using popular portmanteaus in your personal or professional writing is essentially a judgment call, and my best advice is to stick to your style and to use them intentionally. Match the tone of the surrounding content or topic. Understand that the audience of well-established publications with high standards may become a little hostile after you write about Grexit if they believe that the term Brexit was bad enough already.

Ultimately, I say go ahead and include portmanteaus in your content, albeit wisely. Those terms that have actual value will stand the test of time — if ridonkulous has become standard lexicon in 50 years, then I will grudgingly acknowledge my defeat.

Now, it’s your turn. What’s your favorite popular portmanteau? What are the most inspired portmanteau examples that you’ve created? Share in the comments so the rest of us can bask in the glow of your eloquence!

I like to imagine prepositions as little grammatical bridges; they are the structures that connect one element of a sentence to the next. However, they need solid support on either side, or else they slide purposelessly into an infinite abyss of wasted words.

So, the next step is to build a functional unit where the preposition has a destination or a grammatical object to relate to. We do this by combining the preposition with a noun to form a prepositional phrase.

 

What Is a Prepositional Phrase Definition?

Let’s start with a simple question and build from there: What is a prepositional phrase definition?

Prepositional phrase (noun): a phrase that starts with a preposition and ends in either a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun.

 

What Is a Prepositional Phrase?

A prepositional phrase, at the very minimum, consists of a preposition and its object and frequently includes a direct or indirect article.

• at the studio
• in the car

It can also incorporate modifiers that further define the object. These can be noun adjuncts, adjectives, and even other prepositional phrases.

• at the television studio
• in the blue car next to the building

Prepositional phrases then function as either adjectives or adverbs.

Adjectival prepositional phrases provide additional meaning about a noun (or element acting as a noun) such as quantity or amount, attributes or characteristics.

• Park in the lot with fewer cars.
• The studio on the east side is where we need to go.
• My mom said she would bring a bag of snacks for us.

Adverbs modify verbs, as well as adjectives and other adverbs, and so have a broader function than adjectives do. They answer these questions: where, when, for what purpose, in what way, and to what extent?

Like their adjectival counterparts, adverbial prepositional phrases generally follow the adjective or adverb that it modifies. When they are used to modify verbs, however, they may appear several elements away from their target.

• We got to the studio faster in your car than we would have on the train.
• I was really happy for the chance to appear on “Jeopardy!”
• I think we should wait for my mom inside the studio.

 

How Do Prepositional Phrases Express Relationships?

The primary function of a preposition is to form and express a relationship between its object and another word, phrase or clause. Preparing for a round in the “Relationship” category, however, would involve data centers full of electronic literature, a liberal interpretation of the word, and probably several lifetimes.

Fortunately for us, prepositions can be broadly categorized based on the type of relationship they convey:

• Place
• Direction or Movement
• Time
• Reason or Purpose
• Agency
• Origin
• Connection
• Instrument or Device

The vast majority of prepositions used in everyday speech and literature fall neatly into one of these categories. There are instances, though, when defining the relationships between abstract concepts and the prepositional phrases that qualify them can present a Double Jeopardy-level challenge. Either way, by breaking down the sentence into its grammatical elements and examining the context, we can usually identify and categorize even the most elusive prepositions.

Place

Once, I had a boss who referred to tangible property as something you could kick. He was talking about classifying business expenses, but all the same; prepositions of place always indicate a physical location that you can see, touch, or kick. They can define a place as compared to a reference point or designate the position of a person, event, or object.

Place Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
at, in, on	I’m standing at my podium on the set of “Jeopardy!” Our guests will be in the studio, sitting on the main floor.
near, by, close to	I can see my mom standing by the souvenir shop. They let us park near the studio. Will you stay close to me?
next to, between	I really hope my podium is next to yours. There’s an extra set of speakers between the audience and us.
behind, above, under, below	My mom is sitting behind a really tall person. Will the lights above the stage make us hot? I’m getting too hot under these lights. Maybe they’ll let me keep a glass of water below my podium.

 

Direction or Movement

These prepositions qualify the actual motion between those kickable locations. They include describing the way something moves, how it moves, or where it goes.

Direction Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
to, from	We might get there faster if we go to the left here. Let’s wave at my mom when she walks in from the lobby.
under, beneath, above, over	I jumped out from under my blankets at 5 a.m. I reached beneath my bed to find my shoe. The sun was just rising above the horizon as we left. We had a great view of it as we drove over the river.
along, around, across	As we strode along the side of the studio, we quizzed each other. We walked around the building, searching for an unlocked door. A groundskeeper yelled at us for walking across a manicured lawn.
toward, away from, into, onto, off	He stalked toward us waving a rake. We ran away from him and into the studio. We climbed onto a low partition and waited for someone to find us. We jumped off the wall and sat on the benches instead.

 

Time

Prepositions of time answer the question “When?” and are used to indicate specific moments or general periods of time in the past, present or future. They can also describe precise or ambiguous lengths of time. Time prepositions are usually specific to the period or interval they describe.

Time Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
at, in, on	We need to leave at 6 a.m. We started watching “Jeopardy!” regularly in 2003. Our show will air on a Friday.
for, during, as	The drive to the show was short but seemed to last for hours. We discussed our strategies during the drive. You were competitive as a kid.
by, since, until, after, before	The producer said that we must arrive by 7 a.m. I haven’t been this nervous since I took my SATs. We’ll probably be there until 8 p.m. or so. Will we see the host at all after Final Jeopardy? I’ve never done anything this cool before now.
past, to	We pulled into the parking lot at twenty past six. The filming ran long, and we left at a quarter to nine.

 

Reason, Purpose, or Role

The function of reason and purpose prepositions is to help explain why. They can either describe the cause or nature of an event or state of being or why that event or state is happening.

Reason Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
because of	We arrived at the studio early because of light traffic.
as	We had special badges that marked us as competitors.
for	I’m appearing on “Jeopardy!” for personal satisfaction rather than to win.
from	Your drive to succeed stems from sheer determination.
on account of	I think you’ll win on account of your dedication to trivia.
through	We discovered friendship through our love of “Jeopardy!”

 

Agency

Also known as instrumentality or causation, agency is one of those elusive, abstract relationships I touched on earlier. The concept is the same as that of a real-life agent — you know, the person you hire as the middle-person (the instrument) to “make it all happen” (causation) after your massive “Jeopardy!” winnings render you too important to manage your own schedule. Since prepositions of agency place the emphasis on the happening, the sentence structure naturally utilizes the passive voice.

Agency Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
with	My stomach felt like it was filled with butterflies.
by	We were inspired by Ken Jennings.

 

Connection

Answer and fill in the blank: Another word for relationship, the primary function of a preposition is to express the ______ between grammatical elements.

If you asked, “What is connection?” you’re correct and probably wondering why this broad brush has its own category.

Prepositions specific to connection are reserved for the most literal interpretations of the concept; that is, physically being in the same place at the same time, having ownership or custody, and attachments to people or objects.

Connection Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
with	Come with me and say hi to my mom.
of	This section of the studio still boasts the original architecture.
to	You have been such a great friend to me.

 

Instrument or Device

The prepositions paired with tools that are used to perform actions are prepositions of instrument or device. These usually refer explicitly to devices, equipment or technology used for transportation or performing tasks, but they can sometimes represent intangible means.

Instrument Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
on	We played a lot of trivia games on our cell phones.
with	Armed with copious irrelevant knowledge, we marched onto the “Jeopardy!” stage.
by	We probably could have gotten to the studio by train.

 

Origin

Prepositions of origin convey, quite literally, where something came from. This includes the location or entity that designed or manufactured an object, the source of an idea or concept, or the origin of a person, including cultural and ethnic identity, birthplace and area of residence.

Origin Prepositions	Prepositional Phrase Examples
of, from	“Jeopardy!” was a creation of Merv Griffin, who was from California.
out of	We observed a moment of silence for Alex Trebek out of respect.

 

As I’m sure you’ve realized by now, many of the most commonly used prepositions fall into more than one category. If your goal is to avoid grammar and clarity issues in your writing that involve incorrect preposition usage, this will be important to remember.

 

So, What Is a Prepositional Phrase and Its Purpose Again?

We’ve gone into great detail about the types of little grammatical bridges and what kinds of clause elements each preposition can and cannot connect. But, it’s crucial to remember what is a prepositional phrase because without those elements, or prepositional objects, prepositions are a bridge to nowhere. Keep this in mind as you start exploring the purpose of prepositional phrases and the limitless opportunities they provide for added definition and color in speech.

What’s the most creative or abstract connection you’ve made with a prepositional phrase? Give us your example in the comments — the harder it is to define, the better!

I hate being wrong. So much, in fact, that I often look up even the simplest words or concepts before making a Facebook post. I live in constant fear that one of my friends will publicly call me out on a grammar error and spark a violent social media debate (diffuse vs. defuse) for which I am responsible for defusing. I also often make rambling, diffuse explanations in an attempt to address every potential iteration or misunderstanding so that I can demonstrate my expansive knowledge on any topic I choose to expound upon.

However, every once in awhile, I encounter a flaw in my reasoning or an idea taken for granted that manifests itself in a repeated error that I didn’t realize I was making. This is the nightmare that wakes me up in the middle of the night, and it came true this morning. I looked up the definitions of diffuse and defuse, and there it was: I had been sure that it was correct to say that in order to promote the peace, the situation must be diffused. And I was wrong.

I have a perfume diffuser and a love for bomb-defusing logic games like Minesweeper. Yet, even those everyday encounters with the two words didn’t stop me from associating the de-escalation of a Twitter brawl with the release of hostility into the ether, where it was no longer potent enough to be harmful.

So, I often overthink things, too. Still, the tendency can be helpful in situations where I need to go back to the drawing board and figure out how to rewire my grammar brain so that I never make this mistake again. Come with me as I define defuse and diffuse, analyze their basic elements and learn how to apply them to any of their uses.

What’s the Difference Between Diffuse vs. Defuse?

I have a terrible time memorizing definitions, rules and exceptions. However, I have found that if I can break down the facts into fundamental concepts, it is much easier to think from the ground up.

1. What Does Diffuse Mean?

According to Merriam-Webster, diffuse can be used as one of several parts of speech with tangible and abstract meanings:

• diffuse (adj.): being at once verbose and ill-organized; 2. not concentrated or localized
• diffuse (trans. verb): to pour out and permit or cause to spread freely; 2. to extend; 3. to spread thinly or wastefully
• diffuse (intrans. verb): to spread out or become transmitted especially by contact; 2. to undergo diffusion

The earliest uses of diffuse come from diffusus, the past participle conjugation of the Latin verb diffundere, which means “to pour out or scatter in every direction.”

“All well and good,” you say, “but this is an English lesson, not a Latin one, right?” Correct. However, as you can see, we now have another much more common word that is virtually interchangeable with diffuse: scatter.

Consider the varied uses of diffuse:

As an adjective:

• a diffuse report: an account that contains many scattered or disorganized elements
• diffuse results of an experiment: scattered data that doesn’t seem to form a pattern

As a transitive verb:

• to diffuse perfume: to spray and scatter the molecules of a scent evenly throughout the air
• to diffuse propaganda: to scatter pamphlets widely throughout the population
• to diffuse financial resources: to scatter money between so many departments that it is no longer enough to be effectual

As an intransitive verb:

• the hormone diffuses: the hormone is scattered throughout the body in the bloodstream
• the riot diffused: the people scattered and went home

So, if you can substitute or rephrase the sentence using scatter, then diffuse was the correct choice, and you can pat yourself on the back.

2. What Does Defuse Mean?

In contrast to diffuse, defuse is a simple, no-nonsense transitive verb:

• defuse (trans. verb): to remove the fuse from; 2. to make less harmful, potent or tense

Going back to my love of deconstructing words into their base elements, examining the roots of defuse should eliminate any lingering confusion:

• de- (prefix): denoting removal or reversal
• fuse (noun): a detonating device used to set off the bursting charge of a bomb, projectile or torpedo

There are really only two uses of defuse, and they’re actually just literal and abstract versions of the same thing: to eliminate the potential of an explosion. In the literal sense, a bomb disposal technician’s job is to de- (remove) the fuse (detonating device). In the abstract, a mediator’s job is to de- (reverse) the fuse (elements of a volatile situation).

3. Using Defuse or Diffuse in a Sentence

There is a simple initial test to determine whether to use diffuse or defuse in a sentence: Is the word being used as a transitive verb? As a refresher, a transitive verb must have an object. For example, whereas it would be correct to write “I like dancing,” simply writing “I like” is a sentence fragment and incorrect in just about any context.

Diffuse can be used as a transitive verb, an intransitive verb or an adjective:

• Transitive verb: Jane’s spray bottle diffused her perfume. (Perfume is the object.)
• Intransitive verb: The scent of Jane’s perfume diffused through our dining room. (Perfume has no object)
• Adjective: The diffuse scent of Jane’s perfume overpowered the aroma of our meal. (Diffuse modifies the noun scent.)

Alternatively, defuse is used as a transitive verb, and nothing else:

• Correct: Jane defused the mine. (Mine is the object of defuse.)
• Incorrect: Jane defused. (We don’t know what Jane defused.)
• Correct: The meeting was getting out of hand, so Dick did his best to defuse it. (It, or the meeting, is the object of defuse.)
• Incorrect: The meeting was getting out of hand, so Dick did his best to defuse. (We don’t know what Dick defused.)

If the word in question is a transitive verb, then ask yourself if the object is either an explosive or an explosive situation, and you’ll have your answer.

• The bomb would have diffused shrapnel throughout the room, but Jane defused it. (Shrapnel is the object of diffused; it, or the bomb, is the object of defuse.)
• The speaker was diffusing toxic rhetoric throughout the population, but Dick did his best to defuse any potential rioting. (Toxic rhetoric is the object of diffusing; potential rioting is the object of defuse.)

Have you ever been 100% positive that you were using a commonly confused word correctly, only to discover that you were mistaken? Has anyone called you out on an error you published in a social media or blog post? Do you now understand the difference between diffuse vs. defuse? Tell us about it in the comments below!