After spending time and energy coming up with the perfect title for your article or blog post, do you really want to take even more time debating how to format it correctly? For instance, what words do you capitalize in the title of an SEO blog? Which words are not capitalized in a title on a web page? Is “your” capitalized in a title? Is “and” capitalized in a title?

When writing for an internet audience, using a standardized title case can help you avoid criticism and confusion. AP style title case has a few easy rules that will help showcase your title. (Note: These rules are the exact same for APA style, the only difference being that AP style does not recommend the use of title case for newspaper headlines, but rather sentence case.)

To master AP title case, learn the capitalization rules below. If you want a simple cheat sheet to have at your side, feel free to download the “Rules of AP Title Case” infographic we’ve created at the bottom of the page.

 

Capitalize the Principal Words in a Title

What words do you capitalize in a title? You should capitalize all of the principal words. The principal words of a title include the first and last words of that title, which you should always capitalize. You should also capitalize all verbs (including infinitives), nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs and some conjunctions. Finally, capitalize every word that is more than three letters long.

Title Capitalization Examples:

 Creating the Perfect Centerpiece for Your Party 
 Increase Curb Appeal With New Shutters
 How To Look For a Paid Internship 

In the last example, note that the entire verb phrase “to look for” is capitalized.

 

What Not To Capitalize in a Title

So what words are not capitalized in a title? The short answer is don’t capitalize articles, prepositions or conjunctions that have fewer than four letters. That leaves a pretty short list of words that often aren’t capitalized*:

a		for		so
an		in		the
and		nor		to
at		of		up
but		on		yet
by		or

*Remember to focus on how a word functions in the title to determine if it should be capitalized. For example, “yet” should be capitalized while acting as an adverb, but lowercase while acting as a conjunction. 

 

Pay Special Attention to Prepositions

When you write titles that contain prepositions, your word processor will likely tell you that you should leave words like “with,” “about,” and “around” lowercase. Defiantly look past the squiggly line indicating a potential error, and remember that in AP title case, prepositions with four or more letters should be capitalized.

Examples of Capitalizing Prepositions in a Title:

 The Dangers of Hiking Without Proper Shoes 
 Working Your Way Around Office Politics  

X   Questions about the Importance of Renters Insurance
X  What’s Lurking beneath Your Home?

 

Capitalizing The Verb “Is”

Many writers make the error of leaving “to be” verbs lowercase. Even though “is,” “are,” “was,” and “be,” are all short words, they should still be capitalized in a title because they are verbs.

Examples Capitalizing the Verb “Is”:

 Why Sunless Tanning Is a Hot Trend
 Satin Sheets Are a Luxury You Can Afford

X    How to be More Aware of Bank Fraud
X    Simple Reasons Why I am Never Bored

 

Title Capitalization Conclusion

The title of your article or blog post is the first thing that your readers will see. By using an intriguing title and formatting it correctly, you can draw your readers in and build their trust. Throughout your article, make sure that the headings within the body of your work follow the same formatting guidelines as your title. When you do this, you are well on your way to creating an article that is both fun to read and visually appealing.

If you have any comments on the subject (or funny examples), leave them below! Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

 

Rules of AP Title Case Cheat Sheet:

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I’ve learned, especially when writing about living persons, that formal titles are a big deal. If you fail to properly capitalize an individual’s formal title when writing SEO content, that person may perceive it as an insult. You may also run into people insisting that you capitalize job titles that don’t actually qualify as formal. In those cases, just let them know that you’re adhering to the Associated Press Stylebook. Below are some guidelines on how to work with formal titles in AP style.

 

Capitalize Formal Titles Before Names

Formal titles in AP style should be capitalized when they immediately precede one or more names. For instance, people often ask, “Is president capitalized?”. The simple answer is, “yes”. See the formal titles examples below:

President Abraham Lincoln

Vice Presidents Al Gore and Dan Quayle

When a title stands alone or is offset from a name by commas, it should be lowercase.

The president was on vacation.

The lieutenant governor, Gavin Newsom, was serving in the governor’s absence.

If an individual does not presently or permanently hold a title, still capitalize it when including it before the person’s name. However, do not capitalize adjectives describing the status of the title.

former President Jimmy Carter

interim Mayor Todd Gloria

 

Formal Titles vs. Occupational Descriptions

Are job titles capitalized? The challenge is distinguishing between formal titles and occupational descriptions. A formal title is conferred upon an individual alongside a scope of authority. Examples include persons in the military, government officials, religious leaders and royalty. Formal titles may also denote a level of academic or professional achievement, as in the case of doctors.

Occupational descriptions, on the other hand, more generally describe what a person does for a living. Occupational descriptions are not capitalized even when positioned directly before an individual’s name.

astronaut Sally Ride

actor Ronald Reagan

professor Barack Obama

Notice that the AP Stylebook does not recognize professor as a formal title. Professor Emeritus, however, is a formal title and should be capitalized accordingly before a name.

For further guidance in determining whether a title is formal or occupational, you should also check whether it is capitalized in usage by the organization conferring it.

 

Formal Titles in Comma Constructions

If you remain unable to determine whether a title is a formal title or an occupational description, use a comma construction and set the title in lowercase apart from the individual’s name.

The department meeting was chaired by Jesse Andrews, coach of the lacrosse team.

Comma constructions should also be used for long bureaucratic titles.

Greg Eagles, deputy associate director of night basketball programs, opposed extending the three-point line.

If a title is unique to one person within an organization, use a comma construction along with the word the before the title.

Oscar Scolari, the chief operating officer, is second-in-command.

 

Formal Titles to Abbreviate

Most formal titles should be spelled out at all times. Specific exceptions include Dr., Rep., Sen., Gov., Lt. Gov. and certain ranks in the military. These AP style titles should be abbreviated only when used directly before a name.

 

Additional Guidelines for Formal Titles

Stories with U.S. datelines generally should not include U.S. before the titles of government officials. Include U.S., however, if the omission could cause confusion.

U.S. Sen. Diana Salazar was scheduled to meet with state Sen. Calvin Carson.

International stories should include U.S. before government titles for U.S. officials.

Titles of nobility sometimes serve as alternate names for individuals. In such cases, capitalize the full title.

The Earl of Sandwich ordered a salad.

 

Formal Titles Are Serious Business

Do you still have questions about how to use formal titles in AP style? Are you still unsure on some job titles and if they are capitalized or not? Let us know by commenting below, and don’t forget to check out our blog on how to use courtesy title in AP style. Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

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If you’d like to have expertly written content for your website but not have to worry about whether or not formal titles are being used correctly, then look no further than BKA Content! We’ve partnered with thousands of small businesses and digital marketing agencies to produce high-quality SEO content that ranks. Contact us to learn more about how our affordable SEO services for small businesses and managed SEO writing solutions for agencies can help!

If you are like me and tend to do a lot of blog or SEO content writing throughout the week, you probably mention a well-known company or two in your content. It is imperative that when you write any piece – particularly if it is for a specific company – that you get these names right. For instance, is “inc” capitalized? Is there a comma before “LLC”? While it often may seem that AP Stylebook guidelines can be difficult to learn, AP style company names are quite simple if you keep a few things in mind.

Rules for Writing Company Names in AP Style

Below you’ll find a list of things to consider when writing company names:

Include the Company’s Full Name

Use the company’s full name somewhere in the article, especially if the article’s subject matter could affect the company’s business. Doing so also helps search engines find your content. The full name is not required if the company name is irrelevant to the story, and you don’t have to use the formal name on first reference.

Consider Costco Wholesale Corp. as an example. It’s appropriate to refer to the company as Costco, but you’ll want to use Costco Wholesale Corp. if you’re writing an earnings report or a story that could influence the company’s stock price.

Drop the Comma

Have you ever wondered if there is a comma before LLC in AP style? Or if there is a comma after “inc” in a sentence? Well, if the company name is followed by Inc., Ltd. or LLC, do not include a comma before it, even if it is included in the formal name elsewhere.

• Apple Inc.
• Schlumberger Ltd.
• FCA US LLC

Don’t Forget the ‘The’

Be sure to include “The” if it is part of the formal company name.

Company Name Examples:

• The Coca-Cola Co.
• The Gap Inc.

If “The” is not included in the formal company name, keep it lowercase unless it is the first word in the sentence.

• Pittsburgh is home of the United States Steel Corp. headquarters.

If you are unsure what the full name of a company is, you can consult the New York Stock Exchange, Nasdaq, or any filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission.

Use Proper Spelling and Capitalization in Company Names

You should generally use the company’s preferred spelling of its name, but for corporate news or press releases, you can simply use the legal name filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Remember to capitalize the first letter of a company name even if it uses a lowercase one initially. For example, Adidas and Lululemon both tend to use a lowercase letter at the beginning of their names, but when referring to those companies in a piece of content, you would capitalize the first letter per AP style company names guidelines.

An exception to this capitalization rule is any company that begins with a lowercase letter but includes a capital letter elsewhere in the name, such as eBay. However, you should always capitalize company names when they appear at the beginning of a sentence.

• Ebay was originally named AuctionWeb.
• A broken laser pointer was the first item sold on eBay.

Likewise, if a company tends to use all capital letters in its name, you would not use all capitals. Instead, capitalize just the first letter followed by lowercase letters.

• Asus rather than ASUS
• Ikea rather than IKEA
• USA Today rather than USA TODAY

The only time it is appropriate to use all capital letters in a company name is if the letters are individually pronounced, as in BMW or BKA Content. Remember to brush up on your AP acronym rules while you are at it.

Do You Italicize Company Names?

No. Capitalization of company names is correct, but no italicizing or underlining is needed.

Avoid Symbols

Even if a company’s name typically includes symbols such as asterisks, exclamation points or plus signs, do not use these when following AP Stylebook, because they could distract or confuse readers. Take these company names for example:

• E-Trade rather than E*Trade
• Toys R Us rather than Toys “R” Us
• Yahoo rather than Yahoo!

Include Ampersands

When it comes to ampersands (&), you should use one only if it is included in the formal name of the company. Otherwise, use “and.”

• AT&T Inc.
• Eli Lilly and Co.

Examples of AP Style Company Names

Below you’ll find a list of the formal names of some major U.S companies:

3M Co.	Exelon Corp.	Norfolk Southern Corp.
Abbott Laboratories	Express Scripts Holding Co.	Northrop Grumman Corp.
Aetna Inc.	Exxon Mobil Corp.	Occidental Petroleum Corp.
Alcoa Corp.	Facebook Inc.	Oracle Corp.
The Allstate Corp.	FedEx Corp.	PepsiCo Inc.
Alphabet Inc.	Ford Motor Co.	Pfizer Inc.
Altria Group Inc.	The Gap Inc.	Phillips 66
Amazon.com Inc.	General Dynamics Corp.	PNC Financial Services Group Inc.
American Express Co.	General Electric Co.	The Procter & Gamble Co.
American International Group Inc.	General Mills Inc.	Prudential Financial Inc.
Amgen Inc.	General Motors Co.	Qualcomm Inc.
Anadarko Petroleum Corp.	The Goldman Sachs Group Inc.	Raytheon Co.
Anthem Inc.	Halliburton Co.	Schlumberger Ltd.
Apple Inc.	HP Inc.	Sears Holdings Corp.
Arconic Inc.	The Home Depot Inc.	Simon Property Group Inc.
AT&T Inc.	Honeywell International Inc.	Southwest Airlines Co.
Bank of America Corp.	Intel Corp.	Sprint Corp.
Berkshire Hathaway Inc.	International Business Machines Corp.	Starbucks Corp.
Best Buy Co.	J.C. Penney Co.	Staples Inc.
Biogen Idec Inc.	Johnson & Johnson	Target Corp.
Boeing Co.	JPMorgan Chase & Co.	Texas Instruments Inc.
Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.	Kellogg Co.	Time Warner Inc.
Carnival Corp.	Kimberly-Clark Corp.	Travelers Cos.
Caterpillar Inc.	The Kraft Heinz Co.	Twitter Inc.
CBS Corp.	The Kroger Co.	Tyson Foods Inc.
Chevron Corp.	Lockheed Martin Corp.	Union Pacific Corp.
Cisco Systems Inc.	Lowe’s Cos.	United Continental Holdings Inc.
Citigroup Inc.	Macy’s Inc.	UnitedHealth Group Inc.
The Coca-Cola Co.	Marathon Oil Corp.	United Parcel Service Inc.
Colgate-Palmolive Co.	Mastercard Inc.	United States Steel Corp.
Comcast Corp.	McDonald’s Corp.	United Technologies Corp.
ConAgra Foods Inc.	McKesson Corp.	U.S. Bancorp
ConocoPhillips	Medtronic Inc.	Verizon Communications Inc.
Costco Wholesale Corp.	Merck & Co.	Viacom Inc.
CVS Health Corp.	MetLife Inc.	Visa Inc.
Deere & Co.	Microsoft Corp.	Walgreens Boots Alliance Inc.
Delta Air Lines Inc.	Mondelez International Inc.	Walmart Inc.
DowDuPont Inc.	Monsanto Co.	The Walt Disney Co.
Duke Energy Corp.	Morgan Stanley	Wells Fargo & Co.
eBay Inc.	News Corp.	Whole Foods Market Inc.
Eli Lilly and Co.	Nike Inc.	Xerox Corp.

 

Below you’ll find a list of the formal names of some major non-U.S companies:

Airbus Group	Diageo PLC	Ranbaxy Laboratories Ltd.
Allianz SE	Electricite de France SA	Reliance Industries Ltd.
America Movil SAB de CV	Eni SpA	Rio Tinto PLC
Anheuser-Busch InBev SA	E.ON SE	Roche Holding AG
ArcelorMittal	Fiat Automobiles SpA	Royal Dutch Shell PLC
AstraZeneca PLC	Gazprom OAO	SABMiller PLC
Baidu Inc.	GlaxoSmithKline PLC	Samsung Electronics Co.
Banco Santander SA	Glencore PLC	Sanofi SA
Bank of China Ltd.	H&M Hennes & Mauritz AB	SAP SE
Barclays PLC	Honda Motor Co.	Siemens AG
Barrick Gold Corp.	HSBC Holdings PLC	Societe Generale SA
Bayer AG	Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Ltd.	Sony Corp.
BHP Billiton Ltd.	ING Groep NV	Tata Group
BMW Group	L’Oreal SA	Telefonica SA
BNP Paribas SA	LVMH Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton SA	Tesco PLC
BP PLC	Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group Inc.	Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
Carrefour SA	Nestle SA	ThyssenKrupp AG
China Construction Bank Corp.	Nintendo Co.	Total SA
China Mobile Ltd.	Nippon Telegraph & Telephone Corp.	Toyota Motor Corp.
China Petroleum & Chemical Corp. or Sinopec	Nissan Motor Co.	UBS AG
CNOOC Ltd.	Nokia Corp.	Unilever NV
Credit Suisse Group AG	Novartis AG	Vale SA
Daimler AG	Novo Nordisk A/S	Vivendi SA
Deutsche Bank AG	PetroChina Co.	Vodafone Group PLC
Deutsche Telekom AG	Petroleo Brasileiro SA	Volkswagen AG

 

AP Style Company Names: Conclusion

It may seem like there is a lot to remember with AP style company names, but if you keep these tips in mind, mentioning them in your content should be easy. What simple tips do you have for remembering how to write company names in AP style? Share them in the comments!

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Whether you’re writing location-based SEO content that incorporates state names in keyword phrases or just wanting to make sure you reference state names right in day-to-day communication, we’ve got your back. The writers of most content creation companies usually write using a popular style guide (AP, APA, Chicago, MLA) mixed with a house style. At BKA, we prefer AP style, which is a standard in journalism. Although the rules seem to change as often as I eat a shameful amount of candy (read: every day), I appreciate the AP editors’ understanding that language is constantly evolving. The same is true when it comes to AP state abbreviations.

What’s New With AP Style State Abbreviations?

Some writers may be unaware that AP changed the rule regarding how state names should be written. In the past, states were generally abbreviated in domestic articles and news stories, but they were always spelled out in international content. In an attempt to be more consistent across the board, AP has changed the ruling so that both domestic and international articles now contain spelled-out versions of state names.

State Abbreviations Are Not Extinct

Because nothing can ever truly be simple, abbreviated state names still are used in the following:

• Lists
• Tables
• Datelines
• Photo captions
• Nonpublishable editor’s notes
• Short-form identification
• Political party affiliation
• Agate editions
• Credit lines

What About Headlines?

AP style isn’t keen on using state abbreviations in titles, so spell them out.

Exceptions to the Rules

It wouldn’t be AP style without an exception or two! There are eight states that should never be abbreviated in text or datelines. Those are Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas and Utah.

A great way to remember this exception is to realize that Alaska and Hawaii are not in the contiguous United States, and the other exempted states contain five letters or fewer in their names. To be very, very clear, here are the AP state abbreviations (or lack thereof) for the states listed above:

• Alaska Abbreviation: Alaska
• Hawaii Abbreviation: Hawaii
• Idaho Abbreviation: Idaho
• Iowa Abbreviation: Iowa
• Maine Abbreviation: Maine
• Ohio Abbreviation: Ohio
• Texas Abbreviation: Texas
• Utah Abbreviation: Utah

How To Abbreviate Each State

When abbreviating the state names, don’t make the mistake of using the postal code abbreviations (think OK for Oklahoma). AP Stylebook has provided a list indicating exactly how the states should be shortened.

Alabama (Ala.)	Maryland (Md.)	North Dakota (N.D.)
Arizona (Ariz.)	Massachusetts (Mass.)	Oklahoma (Okla.)
Arkansas (Ark.)	Michigan (Mich.)	Oregon (Ore.)
California (Calif.)	Minnesota (Minn.)	Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Colorado (Colo.)	Mississippi (Miss.)	Rhode Island (R.I.)
Connecticut (Conn.)	Missouri (Mo.)	South Carolina (S.C.)
Delaware (Del.)	Montana (Mont.)	South Dakota  (S.D.)
Florida (Fla.)	Nebraska (Neb.)	Tennessee (Tenn.)
Georgia (Ga.)	Nevada (Nev.)	Vermont (Vt.)
Illinois (Ill.)	New Hampshire (N.H.)	Virginia (Va.)
Indiana (Ind.)	New Jersey (N.J.)	Washington (Wash.)
Kansas (Kan.)	New Mexico (N.M.)	West Virginia (W.Va.)
Kentucky (Ky.)	New York (N.Y.)	Wisconsin (Wis.)
Louisiana (La.)	North Carolina (N.C.)	Wyoming (Wyo.)

I suggest you print this table out and keep it close to your computer until you learn all the AP style state abbreviations. Why New Mexico is N.M. and West Virginia is W.Va. is unclear, but if you’re keen on following AP rules, then this is need-to-know information.

If you’d like a more visually appealing way to reference AP style state name abbreviations, save this map we’ve created with all the names you need.

The Good News

The positive here is that the Grammar Gods don’t care if you abbreviate state names, so if these rules aren’t in line with your house style or your clients’ way of writing, then scrap the guidelines, by all means! If in your mind the Arkansas abbreviation will always be AR and Missouri abbreviation MO, then so be it! This is a judgment-free zone.

Sound Off on State Name Abbreviations

What do you think about these AP style state abbreviation rules? Do they make sense to you, or do they make your head spin? Do you still prefer the Massachusetts abbreviation of MA over Mass.? Or the Virginia abbreviation of capitalized VA over Va.? Comment below! Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

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If you want to follow the content writing style used by magazines, newspapers, editors and journalists, then you need to study up on Associated Press style, or AP style. This style of writing is very commonly used in SEO content writing such as business blogging, press releases, eBooks, white papers and more. In the past we discussed how to correctly use AP style title case, and now we’re here to tackle the often confused topic of AP style numbers.

 

Knowing the Basics of AP Style Numbers

So how do you know when to spell out numbers in AP style? In general, you should spell out all numbers one through nine and use figures only for numbers 10 and above. While this rule seems short and sweet, there are a lot of exceptions that you need to be aware of.

AP Style Numbers Examples:

– My pet monster has three heads and five eyes.

– Did you know that 10 out of 25 people believe phony statistics?

 

Beginning a Sentence With a Number

When starting a sentence with a number, you usually want to spell the number out. However, there is an exception to this exception (things can never be easy, right?). If you start a sentence with a year, then use the figure.

Introductory AP Style Numbers Examples:

– Four thousand people gathered to celebrate the boy band’s upcoming album.

– 1999 was a good year to party, according to Prince.

 

AP Style Addresses

Always use figures for numbered addresses. However, if the name of the street is a number, then you should default back to the basics: spell out First through Ninth, and use figures for 10th and anything higher.

AP Style Address Examples:

– The President of the United States lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue.

– The Empire State Building is located at 350 Fifth Avenue in New York.

 

AP Style Ages

Use figures when writing ages:

AP Style Ages Examples:

– My 5-year-old brother is stinky and needs to bathe.

– The actress, 7, is being managed by her mother, 42.

 

AP Style Dates

Use figures when discussing dates, but never turn to ordinal numbers. In other words, when using AP Style numbers writing out July 4 is okay, but stay away from July 4th.

Additionally, if you are writing about a decade or century, never use an apostrophe. The only time an apostrophe is needed is if you are writing a decade and dropping the first half of the figure (‘80s).

AP Style Years, Months, Decades and Dates Examples:

– The Renaissance spanned from the 1300s to the 1600s.

– The ‘70s were all about peace, love, and flower power.

 

AP Style Measurements and Dimensions

Use figures when writing about dimensions—including height and weight. Bonus: Don’t abbreviate the unit of measurement when using AP Style numbers.

AP Style Height and Measurements Examples:

– My grandma is approximately 4-foot-10.

– On average, a garden snail moves 50 yards per hour.

 

AP Style Highways

Follow the example of the popular Route 66 and use figures when writing about highways and freeways.

AP Style Highway Examples:

– You need to take Interstate 5 for 34 miles before you’ll reach your destination.

 

AP Style Millions/Billions

Always use figures.

AP Style Millions/Billions Examples:

– There are 300 billion stars in the Milky Way.

– It has been estimated that over 85 million house cats live in North America.

 

AP Style Money

Use figures when referring to money, whether dollars or cents. All of the numerals will carry dollar signs except when discussing cents. Note that when writing about an even amount, you want to drop the period and zeroes that often accompany a dollar amount ($6.00 = NO!).

AP Style Dollars and Money Examples:

– The business was sold for $5.7 million last year.

– Remember when a call from a payphone only cost 10 cents?

– I paid $6 for that hamburger.

 

AP Style Percentages

Use figures and the percent symbol to express percentages. (This was changed in 2019. Previously we had to write out “percent.”)

AP Style Percentages Examples:

– Approximately 25% of the world’s supply of hazelnuts is used to make Nutella.

– Only 9% of Americans prefer watching baseball more than other sports. 

 

Try to avoid using a percentage to start a sentence, otherwise you have to write out the number and “percent.”

– Two percent of missing remotes are found outside. 

 

AP Style Plural Numbers

Just like when writing about decades and centuries, an apostrophe should not be used with plural numbers.

AP Style Plural Numbers Examples:

– Yesterday I bowled two 300s.

 

AP Style Speed

Use figures with speeds.

AP Style Speed Examples:

– We were going at least 75 mph.

 

AP Style Temperature

Use figures with temperatures.

AP Style Temperatures Examples:

– Even though it was 43 degrees outside, he went swimming.

 

AP Style Time

Use figures with time. Note that you should never use :00 when discussing an even hour. Likewise, midnight and noon should be spelled out.

AP Style Time Examples:

– 5 p.m., 6:30 a.m.

 

Well-Known Expressions in AP Style

Ready for another exception? If you are using clichés or well-known expressions, you should usually spell out the number.

AP Style Expressions Examples:

– Life begins at forty.

– She had her fifteen minutes of fame.

 

Perfecting AP Style Numbers Usage One Number at a Time

The AP style numbers guidelines are extensive, but they don’t have to be confusing. Mastering AP Style dates, temperatures, measurements, ages, time, percent, money, years, hours, speed and more is doable! If you commit one rule to memory each day, in just two weeks you will become an AP numbers master.

Let us know if you struggle with one of these exceptions with AP style numbers. You’re definitely not alone! Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

 

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Just because you know AP style rules, doesn’t mean you should be the one that has to crank out all the content. When you work with a company like BKA Content to help produce high-quality SEO content, we’ll take your writing style guide and implement it into our processes. We’ve written thousands of blogs, web pages, ebooks and more all while properly utilizing AP style.

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This AP style coronavirus topical guide was created in accordance with AP Stylebook guidelines. The entries listed can help you produce informative and accurate articles about the coronavirus, COVID-19 and associated topics.

 

Coronaviruses

There is a virus family known as coronaviruses that include many types of individual viruses. These viruses have spikes protruding from their surface that reminded researchers of a crown, thus the name meaning “crown virus.”

The individual viruses can affect both people and animals with a wide variety of symptoms that range from mild to life-threatening. The viruses can cause common colds, MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome), SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) and COVID-19.

Referring to a singular coronavirus should only occur in headlines and in such instances: Susan was anxious over coronavirus safety issues.

In all other cases, include the article the.

• Correct: The mayor stated the coronavirus cases are rising.
• Incorrect: Susan was anxious about coronavirus.

COVID

Never refer to the coronavirus as only COVID unless you are quoting someone or using the term as a proper name.

COVID-19

COVID-19, or coronavirus disease 2019, is the latest disease discovery in the coronavirus family and is believed to have first appeared in Wuhan, China, in late 2019.

Common COVID-19 symptoms include coughing, trouble breathing, fever, a sore throat, loss of smell or taste, and muscle pain. People with prior medical conditions may develop more life-threatening conditions such as pneumonia.

When writing stories about COVID-19, using the general term the coronavirus as an initial reference is acceptable. However, although the phrasing implies a single virus instead of a disease, the context usage clarifies the confusion. Other first references that are acceptable when talking about the virus include the new virus or a new coronavirus.

Use COVID-19 when referring to the disease that is caused by the virus. It is not correct to write COVID-19 spreads through the air, because COVID-19 is not the virus. Instead, write the coronavirus spreads through the air. 

When writing about COVID-19 or the science behind the disease, clear and concise distinctions are important. Rather than use general references or terms, be specific.

SARS

When reporting on specific coronaviruses, it is acceptable to first refer to the disease as SARS, as long as the 2003 Asian virus is identified later in the article as severe acute respiratory syndrome.

When referring to SARS-CoV-2, it’s acceptable to say the virus that causes COVID-19 and the COVID-19 virus. Do not say a new virus called COVID-19, because COVID-19 is the disease, not the virus.

MERS

MERS can be used as a first reference for the 2012 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome once the disease’s name is spelled out later in the article.

 

Antibodies

The human body has an immune response known as antibodies that fight infection. By using a blood test to identify different types of antibodies, traces of previous infections within the body can be detected. Current or active infections are not easily identified using a blood test, but there are other tests that can better recognize those active illnesses or diseases.

• Ex: The body immediately employs antibodies to combat infections before they can be detected using blood tests.

 

Anti-inflammatory

An anti-inflammatory is a product or drug used to relieve pain and reduce inflammation within the human body. The most popular types are NSAIDs.

• Ex: Since inflammation in joints can cause immense pain, over-the-counter NSAIDs are a popular anti-inflammatory remedy.

 

Antiseptic, Disinfectant

Antiseptics are used on living things to remove or kill germs. Disinfectants kill germs on inanimate objects. The correct adjective is disinfectant, not disinfecting.

• Ex: Children love using brightly colored hand sanitizing antiseptic products.
• Ex: The school used a disinfectant bleach on chairs and countertops.

 

Antiviral (n., adj.), antivirus (adj.)

When referring to antiviral or antivirus, no hyphen is needed. In general terms, use antivirus, but when using medical references, refer to antiviral.

• Ex: The antivirus controls were difficult to implement.
• Ex: The antiviral drug production date was pushed back for the second time.

 

Asymptomatic

Avoid medical jargon when possible. Rather than refer to the term asymptomatic, use phrases such as without symptoms or no symptoms.

• Ex: Although Phillip felt no symptoms, he was sure he was suffering from the flu for the third time that season.

 

Bandanna

The bandanna is a square of fabric made popular during cattle drives in America after the Civil War.

• Ex: Two Colorado residents were wearing bandannas as face coverings.

 

Cancel, Canceled, Canceling, Cancellation

When something is canceled, it is made void. When writing for American publications, use cancel, canceled, canceling, and cancellation.

• Ex: The reporter announced the rally was canceled due to rain.

 

CARES Act

Unless you are quoting a direct reference to the Coronavirus Aid, Relief and Economic Security Act, avoid mentioning the CARES Act. When referring to the United State’s $2.2 trillion aid package for workers and businesses, use expressions such as the coronavirus aid bill, the coronavirus relief bill or the coronavirus rescue package. Do not refer to the relief money as stimulus aid, because the bill was issued to replace money lost in the economic collapse caused by the coronavirus shutdown, not stimulate the economy.

• Ex: Senators battled long into the night to come to an agreement over the coronavirus aid bill.

 

Cases

Do not refer to people as cases when reporting the coronavirus, and refrain from the redundant and incorrect phrase positive cases.

• Incorrect: Forty positive cases were reported yesterday.
• Correct: Forty people tested positive yesterday.

 

 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Use Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on first reference for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services department located in Atlanta. Clarify with preceding terms such as federal, national or U.S. as needed. Using CDC upon further reference is acceptable, but use a singular verb.

• Ex: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is closed for a long weekend. Posted window signs noted the CDC will open for regular business hours on Tuesday morning.

 

Contagion

Do not use the phrase contagion in your writing. Illness, virus or disease are usually better to use.

• Ex: News of the illness and related symptoms quickly spread across the village thanks to the hometown newspaper.

 

Contact Tracing

Contact tracing is the process of monitoring or tracking people thought to be in close proximity to someone known to be infected with a disease. Do not place the term in quotation marks. If using the phrase as a modifier, include a clarifying hyphen.

• Ex: The government’s contract-tracing program gained momentum.

When possible, rephrase or add variety with terms such as close contact or close proximity.

• Ex: The agency is working to identify individuals who came into close contact with Sam Jones at the nursing home.

 

Data

General use of the term data for large audiences or journalism contexts uses singular pronouns and verbs. When reporting or writing for academic or scientific papers, use plural pronouns and verbs.

• Ex: The New York Post’s data is sound.
• Ex: The National Academy of Sciences reported data signifiers about the different coronavirus symptoms.

Use database and databank as one-word identifiers, but data processing (as both a noun and adjectives) and data center without hyphens.

• Ex: The New York coronavirus data center was overwhelmed with new patient information in March.

 

Death, Die

When individuals die, report the death. Euphemisms such as passed away, passed on or departed soul should be avoided except in direct quotes.

• Ex: When John McCain died, foreign dignitaries attended the funeral.

 

Diseases

Common names for diseases should never be capitalized. This includes leukemia, cancer, hepatitis, emphysema, etc. If referring to a disease known by a geographical area or a person’s name, only capitalize the referring proper noun, such as Parkinson’s disease or West Nile virus.

Avoid generic or victimizing reporting such as: John is a stroke victim, and his wife is battling COVID-19. Instead, use more precise terms.

• Ex: Joe had a stroke, and Suzannah has esophageal cancer.

 

Distances, Time Periods

Distances are represented by numerals.

• Ex: Stay 6 feet apart when standing in line.

Numbers under 10 referring to months, days, years or weeks are spelled out.

• Ex: The cough lasted eight days.

 

Distance Learning (n., adj.)

Distance learning is a phrase denoting education using computers at home instead of attending in-school classrooms. No hyphen is required.

• Ex: Sonny signed up for three distance learning classes.

 

Doctor

Use the designation Dr. or Drs. (plural) in the first reference before the name of a professional individual that holds a medical or dental doctoral degree. This includes doctor of medicine, doctor of pediatric medicine, doctor of optometry, doctor of dental surgery, and doctor of veterinary medicine.

• Ex: Dr. Deborah Birx held a press conference yesterday to discuss the pandemic.

While other individuals may hold doctorate degrees, do not use the title of Dr. before their name. Instead, note the person’s credentials or expertise when referencing them. Use as many details as necessary.

• Ex: John Jones’ degree in immunology uniquely qualified him to lead a virology team at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

 

Drive-thru

The action of staying inside your vehicle, moving through the area, and still receiving information, services or goods is known as a drive-thru process. Hyphenate in all instances.

• Ex: The drive-thru pharmacy only had three cars in line.

 

Epidemic, Pandemic

Epidemic and pandemic should not be used interchangeably, so look to public health official declarations to identify which to report. A disease that spreads rapidly through an area or group is called an epidemic, but when an epidemic spreads worldwide, it is referred to as a pandemic. Do not use the term global pandemic, because it is redundant.

• Ex: The World Health Organization identified COVID-19 as a pandemic on March 11, 2020.

 

Exposure

Exposure occurs from close proximity to or coming into contact with a substance considered harmful. That exposure can lead to illness or infection. People are never tested for exposure to the virus. Individuals are tested to see if they are infected with the virus.

• Ex: To prevent exposure to the newly discovered disease, people began to work from home and shop online.

 

Front Line(s) (n.), Front-line (adj.)

When using front line, differentiate the adjective from the noun with a hyphen.

• Ex: Front-line doctors wore personal protective equipment to shield themselves from exposure to the disease.

 

Good Samaritan

A good Samaritan is someone who stops to help another person in distress. Always capitalize Samaritan because the name represents a geographical location.

• Ex: The good Samaritan rescued the kitten from the tree.

 

 

Hand-washing

The importance of hand-washing to eliminate the spread of viruses came to light during the COVID-19 pandemic. Include a hyphen.

• Ex: The doctor suggested hand-washing can prevent the spread of the virus.

 

Health Care

When reporting on health care, always use two words.

• Ex: The health care office opened early Monday morning for vaccination appointments.

 

Home schooling (n.), Home-schooler (n.), Home-school (v.), Home-schooled (adj.)

Only the noun home schooling does not carry a hyphen.

• Ex: Alexandra’s parents decided to home-school their gifted child.

 

Hot Spot

A hot spot is an area with a sudden rise in numbers of an identified disease or infection.

• Ex: The clusters mentioned by WHO were consider infectious disease hot spots.

 

Hydroxychloroquine

Hydroxychloroquine has been used for decades to treat malaria, lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. During the early days of the COVID-19 spread, the Food and Drug Administration authorized the emergency use of hydroxychloroquine to treat the disease. The authorization was rescinded on June 15, 2020, but doctors still have access to the drug and can still treat patients for alternate issues and for COVID-19 using an off-label prescription.

• Ex: Dora Mae took hydroxychloroquine for two weeks as part of a treatment plan for malaria.

 

Incubation Period

An illness’s incubation period is the length of time between the first contact with an infectious person and the appearance of the disease or the onset of symptoms.

• Ex: Doctors warn the incubation period of the new coronavirus is two weeks.

 

Isolation, Self-isolation, Quarantine

There can be confusion when using the terms quarantine and isolation interchangeably, but in terms of common usage, it is permitted in AP stories when discussing the pandemic.

It should be noted that the CDC distinguishes between the two. A quarantine restricts the actions or movements of individuals thought to be exposed to a disease. The quarantine provides time to see if the person presents symptoms. On the other hand, isolation is the act of separating already sick individuals from healthy people in a way that prevents contact or the spread of disease. Self-isolation occurs when individuals voluntarily remove themselves from society while indications or symptoms of an illness are present.

• Ex: Individuals exposed to COVID-19 are asked to self-isolate for two weeks.

Webster’s New World College Dictionary defines quarantine in broader terms that include restrictions of movement, passage or travel to prevent contagious infections, illnesses or diseases from spreading.

• Ex: The panel discussed implementing a quarantine but dismissed the idea as too extreme given the limited information available at the time.

 

Lock down (v.), Lockdown (n., adj.)

When reporting information about either a lockdown or lock down, take care to define what you mean in the article. The word usage should not be left to individual interpretation.

• Ex: Three states requested their citizens lock down for two weeks.

 

Masks, Respirators, Ventilators

Although there are differences between masks, respirators and ventilators, the average reader may not differentiate the terms when reading an article.

An N95 mask, for example, is a cup-shaped mask that covers the mouth and nose and filters the air. Health care and construction workers typically use N95 masks. Technically, N95 masks are respirators, but AP prefers the term masks to avoid confusion.

N95 masks are different from surgical masks, which are loosely worn over the mouth and nose.

A ventilator is a type of machine used to help people breathe. It is acceptable to use breathing machine. 

 

Medical Job Titles

Using scientific or medical titles when writing can be cumbersome or lead to confusion, so avoid the terms whenever possible. Instead, identify an individual’s expertise in simple terms.

Instead of epidemiologist, use public health researcher.

Instead of pulmonologist, use lung specialist.

Instead of virologist, use virus expert.

If mentioning a government title in your article, use the complete job title.

• Ex: The conference announced that state Epidemiologist Mira Sanchez would be the guest speaker.

 

Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (CDC term); Multisystem Inflammatory Disorder in Children and Adolescents (WHO term)

Both multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and multisystem inflammatory disorder in children and adolescents should be avoided when following AP style. As an alternative, refer to the conditions as a rare inflammatory syndrome (or condition) linked to the coronavirus and occurring in children.

• Ex: The CDC stressed that the number of children affected by the rare inflammatory condition is still unknown.

 

National Institutes of Health

There are 27 specialized institutes that make up the National Institutes of Health. As the principal biomedical research arm for the Department of Health and Human Services for the United States federal government, the National Institutes of Health should always be capitalized. It is acceptable to use NIH for a second reference.

• Ex: The National Institutes of Health issued a joint letter of concern about the coronavirus.

 

Nonessential

An item that is not necessary is considered nonessential. Treat as a single word and do not hyphenate.

• Ex: The use of antibacterial spray after a shower was considered nonessential.

 

Patient

An individual that has been or is currently being treated by a medical professional is considered a patient. Since most people who contract the virus never seek medical help and never become hospitalized, avoid referring to individuals in the general population as patients.

• Ex: The hospitalized patients with COVID-19 were kept in an isolated wing to prevent the disease’s possible spread.

 

Pathogen

Due to possible confusion, avoid using the term pathogen. Use viruses or bacteria instead, depending on the context. Germs or bugs are acceptable only as generic terms.

• Ex: Hand-washing was shown to diminish the spread of the virus.

 

Percent, Percentage, Percentage Points

Care should be taken when reporting percent, percentage and percentage points because of possible confusion.

When reporting percentage with a numeral, use the % sign without a space.

• Ex: The stock market was up 4.7%, to the surprise of most economists.

Sentence constructions using the % sign should use the singular verb when they stand alone. Use the % sign if an of construction follows a singular word, too.

• Ex: The teacher said 65% is considered a failing grade.
• Ex: The school reported that 75% of the sorority was at the rally.

However, use a plural verb following the of construction and a plural word.

• Ex: The school reported that 75% of the sorority sisters were at the rally.

Avoid using percentages at the beginning of sentences. If unavoidable, spell out the full term.

• Ex: Ninety-eight percent of babies are born without teeth.

When reporting percentages, do not use fractions, and when reporting ranges, it is acceptable to use 10%-18%, 10% to 18% and between 10% and 18%.

• Ex.: The housing mortgage rate continues to drop below 3.6%.
• Ex.: New home buyers grew in number in March from 6% to between 8% and 9%.

Avoid reader confusion between percentage and percent. When not used with a number, use percentage.

• Ex.: The percentage of people waiting in line for testing grew quickly.

Percentage point and percent are also confused. A change from 10% to 15% is a five-point rise, or a change of 5 percentage points. This is not the same as a 5% change. It’s actually a 50% increase.

• Ex.: He was shocked when the news reported the 30% increase in virus spread.

Take care when reporting percentage points.

• Correct: The voter turnout rose by a 0.34 percentage point.
• Incorrect: The voter turnout rose by 0.34 of percentage points.
• Incorrect: The voter turnout rose by 0.34 of a percentage point.

Don’t use numbers and figures when casually reporting percentages — use words instead.

• Ex: She has a zero percent chance of winning.

 

 

Personal Protective Equipment

Equipment used to minimize personal exposure to hazards that cause illnesses or injuries is referred to as personal protective equipment. Refrain from using PPE when possible. If directly quoting an individual, identify the phrase by spelling it out later in the article.

• Ex: Cleaning the asbestos out of the basement required personal protective equipment.

 

Preventive

Use preventive, not preventative. 

• Ex: Doctors discovered it only took a small dose of the preventive medicine to thwart the illness.

 

Reopen

When mentioning the reopening of a closed building or business, do not hyphenate the term.

• Ex: The notice stated the gym would reopen on Monday morning.

 

Remdesivir

Developed by Gilead Sciences, remdesivir is an experimental antiviral medicine approved for emergency use on COVID-19 patients by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Used only within hospitalized settings, the drug is given intravenously. Since remdesivir is not a brand name of the medicine, do not capitalize the term.

• Ex: The doctor ordered a remdesivir IV catheter for the seriously ill patient.

 

Risk

Risk that occurs within one group when compared to the risk associated with other groups is referred to as relative risk. Scientific studies often express the number in ratios or fractions. When no specific difference is mentioned, the ratio is assumed to be 1. If your reference study states the relative risk of getting COVID-19 for a group of children in the United States is 1.5 times more likely compared to children in England, report specific numbers. In this case, children in England would be 50% less likely to get COVID-19 than children in the United States. Don’t refer to how likely the individuals would be to get the disease unless you know the absolute risk data.

The risk of something occurring is referred to as an absolute risk. When reporting absolute risk numbers or percentages, include both views for a complete story. You do not need to refer to the term absolute risk. For example, reporting that a drug may extend a person’s life by 50% (the relative risk) may sound impressive, but the actual numbers may mean that someone may live six months after having medical treatments instead of four months on average without those treatments.

 

Shelter in Place (v.), Shelter-in-Place (adj.)

Individual interpretations of the terms shelter-in-place or shelter in place can differ widely, so explain what you mean.

• Ex: The governor authorized a shelter-in-place order to begin before Christmas.
• Ex: Many people decided to shelter in place for 10 days.

 

Shutdown (n.), Shut Down (v.)

Use shutdown (one word) as the noun form and shut down (two words) as the verb. Never hyphenate these phrases.

• Ex: The 10-day business shutdown was mandatory.
• Ex: The bakery shut down per the governor’s mandate.

 

Social Distancing, Socially Distancing

When reporting on social distancing or socially distancing individuals, no hyphens or quotation marks are needed.

• Ex: Social distancing is required when shopping in a grocery store.
• Ex: The family members have been socially distancing for two weeks.

Social distancing generally involves efforts to restrict gatherings of individuals. The main goal of the action is to slow or stop an infectious disease spread. Restrictions can include remaining 6 feet from other individuals, limiting the gathering number of people in events or homes, closing classrooms, shutting down or limiting public transportation, etc.

• Ex: Masks are required inside federal buildings, and all participants are asked to social distance.

Since social distancing is widely used and commonly known, there is no need to define the context. If new limitations or steps are required for the focus of the article, spell those steps out.

 

Stay at Home (v.), Stay-at-Home (adj.)

Use stay at home (no hyphen) for the verb form. The hyphen is necessary when used as a compound adjective: stay-at-home.

• Ex: To comply with the stay-at-home request, Louise began working from home.
• Ex: It was difficult for many people to stay at home and limit their shopping to once a week.

 

Telecommute, Telecommuting, Telecommuter

One of the significant changes society has experienced during the pandemic is the number of people that now work from home. Use telecommute, telecommuting and telecommuter when referring to working from home.

• Ex: The mayor tried to telecommute whenever possible but still found herself going to work three days a week.

 

Teleconference, Teleconferencing

A computer or telephone conference with participants in various locations is a teleconference.

• Ex: James went online to schedule a teleconference with his doctor when he developed a cough.

 

Telemedicine

When doctors see patients remotely because they cannot be physically present, the practice is known as telemedicine.

• Ex: The insurance allowed telemedicine calls due to the governor’s stay-at-home order.

 

Travel, Traveled, Traveling, Traveler

When reporting on movement, use travel, traveled, traveling or traveler.

• Ex: The American traveler was asked to quarantine for 14 days when he arrived in Ireland during the pandemic.

 

Underlying Conditions, Preexisting Conditions

Underlying conditions or preexisting conditions can leave readers confused when discussing COVID-19 and related death or illnesses. Use terms such as other health problems or existing health conditions to clarify the situation. Do not use a hyphen for preexisting conditions unless it is a direct quote.

• Ex: The health insurance no longer covered existing health conditions.
• Ex: Hospitalization was necessary due to several other health problems impacting his lungs.

 

Videoconference, Videoconferencing, Video Chat

Do not use hyphens for videoconference, videoconferencing or video chat.

• Ex: The video chat was deemed a failure when the system only allowed eight participants.

 

Virus’s

Virus’s is the singular possessive of virus. Do not use virus’.

• Ex: The virus’s spread through his neighborhood led Nigel Jones to self-isolate.

 

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization is based in Geneva. It is a United Nations health agency that sets international guidelines regarding treating global diseases and outbreaks. Refer to the extended name on first use, then second and further references can use WHO or the WHO.

• Ex: The World Health Organization issued alerts about the spread of virulent diseases.

 

If you cover stories related to the coronavirus and COVID-19, use this AP style coronavirus topical guide as a trusted reference. We’ll continue to update it as the AP Stylebook makes changes related to common usage. Don’t forget to check out our other blogs about AP style basics.

 

As a firm believer in the value of higher education, I can appreciate people taking pride in their academic degrees. These credentials are hard-earned, representing significant investments of time, money and effort. It’s understandable for people to want to show them off in capital letters. As an SEO content writer following the Associated Press Stylebook, however, I capitalize according to the rules and not people’s egos. There are clear guidelines for capitalizing academic degrees in AP style.

If you’ve ever wondered if bachelor’s degree or master’s degree is capitalized, then keep reading to find out!

 

Academic Degrees to Capitalize in AP Style

So do you capitalize degrees? The following formal names of specific degrees should always be capitalized in AP style:

Bachelor of Arts

Bachelor of Science

Master of Arts

Master of Science

Master of Business Administration

As you can see, master’s degrees are capitalized when abbreviated. However, the forms bachelor’s degree, bachelor’s, master’s degree and master’s are acceptable as general terms.

In case it’s not obvious, I have a bachelor’s in writing.

As you can probably tell, I did not pursue a master’s degree.

Note that these are possessives and should contain apostrophes, whereas formal names of specific degrees are never possessive.

Associate degree is never possessive.

I collected a few dozen associate degrees before deciding to become a freelance writer.

 

When to Abbreviate Academic Degrees

When it is necessary to establish an individual’s academic credentials, AP style guidelines advise that you use a phrase instead of an abbreviation. When noting the credentials for several individuals, however, use AP style rules for abbreviations if writing out phrases for each person would render the text cumbersome. These abbreviations should be used only with full names, and they should be set off with commas.

Bringing together expertise across a range of trades and industries, the panel included Bella Andrews, B.A.; Matthew Song, M.S.; Lloyd Davis, LL.D.; and Phyllis Dreyfus, Ph.D.

Note that the abbreviations M.A. and M.S. include periods, but MBA does not.

If possession of an academic degree grants the title Dr. to an individual, do not use both the title and the abbreviation in the same reference.

Incorrect: Dr. Janet Chang, Ph.D.

Correct: Janet Chang, Ph.D.

Correct: Dr. Janet Chang

 

Capitalizing Doctoral Degrees

When referencing an individual with a Ph.D., say that he or she holds a doctorate, then name the area of specialty.

My former classmate, who holds a doctorate in comparative literature, now works as a campus security officer at our old high school.

Use Dr. as a formal title on first reference to individuals with degrees in medicine, optometry, dental surgery, osteopathic medicine, podiatric medicine or veterinary medicine.

For individuals with doctoral degrees in other disciplines, you may use Dr. on first reference as necessary to establish credentials. If the individual’s area of specialty is not immediately clear from the context, take care to specify it within the first two references.

The team enlisted Dr. Abigail Preston, the leading historian on the subject.

If no area of specialty is specified, an individual with the title Dr. is generally assumed to be a physician. In articles involving multiple individuals with different doctoral degrees, however, you may need to specify if any are physicians.

Refrain from using Dr. to refer to individuals with honorary doctorates.

 

The Rules for Capitalizing Degrees Apply to Everyone

You don’t need a master’s degree to know the proper names for credentials. If you still have questions about capitalizing academic degrees in AP style (i.e. Should master’s degree be capitalized? Is bachelor’s degree capitalized?), ask away via the comments below! Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

 

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Clauses are often called the building blocks of sentences, and like most building materials, they aren’t all created equal. Some clauses carry weight and play an integral role within a sentence, while others primarily provide embellishment. Whether you’re writing custom web content or a novel, understanding the difference between these essential clauses and nonessential clauses, along with the rules for using each, is crucial.

 

What Is a Clause?

No, not that kind of Claus! To make sure we’re all on the same page, a clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Essential and nonessential clauses are also frequently referred to as “restrictive clauses” and “non-restrictive clauses,” and either name is acceptable. Because I like simple memory tricks, I’ve gone with the Associated Press style naming convention, which aims to make the function of each type of clause easier to remember.

 

What Are Essential Clauses?

Essential or restrictive clauses provide essential information that restricts you to understanding a sentence in a certain way. Removing one of these clauses from a sentence is a bit like deleting the telltale emoticons from a sarcastic text. You still have a functional sentence or message, but its overall meaning becomes significantly different.

– Apps that require in-game purchases will be my financial downfall.

– My neighbor’s love of music that features bagpipes is unfortunate.

In these essential clause examples, the clauses are needed to clarify what I am saying. I only spend unreasonable amounts of money on a certain type of app, and my neighbor’s obsession with a specific type of music is unfortunate.

 

Rules for Using Essential Clauses

Essential clauses should not be separated from the rest of the sentence with any type of punctuation mark, and they typically follow pronouns such as that, who or where. If you have already used that to introduce a clause earlier in the sentence, you may use which in place of a second that. However, this is the only time that you can get away with this construction.

 – The deadline which I forgot about arrived all too quickly. 

– I wasn’t surprised that the game which I missed turned out to be the most exciting one of the season.

 

What Are Nonessential Clauses?

Like its essential counterpart, a nonessential or non-restrictive clause serves to add information to a sentence. However, this type of clause can be deleted without dramatically altering the meaning of the sentence because it contains nonessential details. Here are some examples:

– My computer, which is several years old, takes even longer to start working in the morning than I do.

– Our cross-country drive, which was supposed to take us from California to Florida, was cut short just two states in.

 

Rules for Using Nonessential Clauses

Nonessential clauses should be set apart from the rest of a sentence with commas, and they should be introduced with which when they refer to inanimate objects. Pronouns such as who and where can be used when these clauses make other references. You should never use that to introduce a nonessential clause. Here are a few nonessential clause examples:

– My friend, who is a night owl, was horrified when she found out how early we needed to leave for our flight.

– I eventually found my phone in the refrigerator, which is where I lose things when I’m especially frazzled.

 

Separating the Essential From the Nonessential

If you’re not sure whether a clause is essential or nonessential, consider if the information it contains is redundant or implied. Then, ask whether the meaning of the sentence would be basically the same if you took out the clause. If so, it’s nonessential.

– Tea that is caffeinated is a key part of my late-night writing routine.

– Dr. Pepper, which is caffeinated, is a key part of my late-night writing routine.

In the first nonessential clause example, I’m distinguishing between teas that contain caffeine and other teas, which makes the information essential. In the second, I am merely mentioning that Dr. Pepper contains caffeine.

– Writers who tend to procrastinate should not be given open deadlines.

– Writers, who tend to procrastinate, should not be given open deadlines.

This sentence can work both ways because its meaning changes based on the structure. The first construction makes the questionable suggestion that only some writers procrastinate, while the second sentence implies that all writers do.

 

Keeping Your Essential and Nonessential Clauses Straight

Distinguishing between essential clauses and nonessential clauses isn’t always easy. However, understanding each type of clause and the relevant rules is key if you want to communicate more clearly and rid your writing of grammar errors. If you have any questions about this tricky topic, make sure to let us know in the comments section! If you’re looking for help on grammar rules, check out some of our other GrammarSpot posts.

The first time I was assigned to write a piece involving a religious organization, I took extra care to research the proper religious titles for all individuals referenced. As I quickly discovered, there is a staggering variety of religious titles, most of them specific to different faiths and denominations. Fortunately, the Associated Press Stylebook addresses many of them in detail. Let’s review together how to properly use religious titles in AP style.

Religious Titles Before Names

Religious titles are formal titles. They should be capitalized when attached before names of individuals, and they should be lowercase when they stand alone. A religious title is appropriate on first reference before the name of a clergyman or clergywoman.

The program included a message from the Rev. Stephen Porter.

On second reference, use only the individual’s last name.

Attendees appreciated Porter’s brevity.

In cases where a figure has taken a religious name as part of a title, maintain usage of this name throughout.

Hotels were fully booked in advance of the visit by Pope Francis. The popularity of the pope was plainly evident, as a massive crowd gathered to receive Francis.

Priests and Ministers

Use of the Rev. is appropriate on first reference for most priests and ministers. Monsignor should be used when applicable for Roman Catholic priests.

The facility was graced with a visit by Monsignor Timothy Howard.

Avoid using the Rev. Dr. before a name unless reference to an individual’s earned doctoral degree is relevant. Do not include Dr. for honorary doctor of divinity degrees.

Avoid using such words as father, pastor and curate before individuals’ names. In direct quotations, however, capitalize these terms when used as titles before names.

“The church is very blessed to have Pastor Steve,” said one parishioner.

Bishops, Archbishops and Cardinals

On first reference, capitalize Bishop, Archbishop and Cardinal before names. On subsequent references, use either the individual’s last name or the title by itself in lowercase.

Later, Bishop Francisco Medina stopped by the school. A group of students presented a gift to the bishop. Medina accepted it gladly.

If appropriate in the context, substitute the Most Rev. as applicable to certain bishops and archbishops.

Opening remarks were given by the Most Rev. Robert W. McElroy, archbishop of San Diego.

Rabbis

Use Rabbi as a formal title, capitalized before a name, on first reference. Use only the rabbi’s last name on second reference.

Joining the discussion was Rabbi Ben Silverstein. Silverstein impressed the panel with his wisdom.

Nuns

Use Sister or, if applicable, Mother before the name of a nun. If the name is a religious name, use the title and name together in all references.

A man came asking for Sister Mary Eunice. Sister Mary Eunice insisted she did not know the man.

If the nun uses a surname, include the title on first reference. Use the surname on subsequent references.

The head nun was Sister Judy Martin. Martin was known to be a rigid disciplinarian.

Officeholders

For individuals who are not ordained clergy but hold offices in the church, use a comma construction to set a lowercase title apart from the name.

Felix Smith, the church treasurer, can answer questions about the budget.

If the position is accompanied by a formal title, however, and the title immediately precedes an individual’s name, then capitalize it.

Chief Financial Officer Gregory Griffin brings years of accounting experience to his position with the new megachurch.

AP Style Religious Titles: No Great Mystery

However inscrutable they may at first appear, religious titles are no great mystery. If you still need help using religious titles in AP style, leave us a comment below!

How to Use Courtesy Titles in AP Style

When I worked as a public school educator, students would address me, depending on their grade level, as Mr. Fung, Mr. Henry or Mr. F, that courtesy title Mr. being the lone essential constant. I understood it as a matter of respect and authority, without which the classroom dynamic would collapse.

On that front, I would find myself in a predicament whenever a new female colleague would visit the classroom. There being a greater selection of courtesy titles for women than for men, referring to her by the wrong title could prove an egregious gaffe. For instance, when do you use Ms., when do you use Mrs. and when do you use Miss? Perhaps recognizing some of the precariousness in this arena, many of the major writing style guides have shifted positions on courtesy titles over the years. If you follow the Associated Press Stylebook, you can relax. The most up-to-date rules for courtesy titles in AP style are quite simple to follow.

 

Avoid Courtesy Titles in Most Cases

AP style guidelines sidestep potential pitfalls by directing against the use of courtesy titles in nearly all cases. On first reference to an individual, use both the first and last name of the person. Regardless of the person’s gender, do not use a courtesy title.

Philanthropist John Johnson was invited to deliver the keynote.

In subsequent references, refer to the individual by last name only.

Johnson regretfully declined, citing a sore throat.

If a person’s gender is not readily apparent, a personal pronoun in a subsequent reference will suffice to clarify.

Late to the party was Taylor Park. His spin class had run long, delaying his arrival.

When discussing multiple individuals with the same last name, such as a husband and wife, continue referring to them by first and last name wherever necessary to avoid confusion when using courtesy titles in AP style.

I asked how their evening went. Thomas Wayne thought it could have been worse. Martha Wayne disagreed.

 

When to Use Courtesy Titles

There are two situations where it is appropriate to use courtesy titles in AP style. First, when directly quoting material, retain any courtesy titles found in the original speech or text.

“We all wish Mr. Johnson a speedy recovery,” the committee responded.

Second, although the general rule is to avoid courtesy titles, respect for a woman’s preference supersedes that directive. If a woman specifically requests to be referred to as Mrs., Miss or Ms., use first and last name on initial reference, then use the courtesy title in subsequent references.

Among the honorees was Serena Smith. Ms. Smith was recognized for conceiving and planning the event.

Because the above only applies when a woman specifically requests one courtesy title or another, there should never be any guesswork required on your part.

 

Use Abbreviated Forms of Courtesy Titles

When courtesy titles are appropriate, use the abbreviated forms.

Correct: Mr. Lee

Incorrect: Mister Lee

Note that Mr., Mrs. and Ms. all end in periods, but Miss does not.

 

Courtesy Titles AP Style: Keep It Simple

This is one AP style rule that is wonderfully straightforward. If you still have questions about how to use courtesy titles in AP style (i.e. “When to use Ms.”, “When to use Mrs.”,”When to use Miss”, etc.) don’t be afraid to ask. We would love to hear from you via the comments form below!