For a few years during elementary school, virtually every sentence my friends and I uttered included the word “like.” This awful speech habit led to plenty of well-deserved ridicule, which made me determined to stop overusing unnecessary words. I thought I was succeeding on this front for years, until I started doing freelance content writing assignments for a client who wasn’t a fan of superfluous words, including “that.” Then, I learned just how guilty I was of overusing the word “that” in my writing. It was basically my new, written version of “like.”

While phasing out “like” was pretty simple, removing unnecessary uses of “that” from my content writing proved challenging because this word legitimately belongs in many sentences. To help you avoid similar grief, today I’d like to share a few tips for avoiding overusing “that” and using “that” in a sentence correctly.

When to Use ‘That’ in a Sentence

First, it’s important to know when “that” is really needed in a sentence. This word frequently attaches dependent clauses to independent clauses, and it is strictly necessary if a clause begins with certain subordinating conjunctions, such as before, while and in addition to. “That” also should be used before clauses that clarify a noun.

• She said that although the sunrise workout sounded like a brilliant idea, sleeping in also sounded good.
• The notion that their project would be finished by the original deadline was laughable.

“That” additionally should appear after certain verbs, such as contend, estimate and point out. If you’re a native speaker, you can probably intuitively identify many of these verbs.

• He enthusiastically declared that he would stop procrastinating tomorrow.

You also should use “that” if a sentence would sound awkward without it. If you’re in doubt, include it, since this does less harm than incorrectly omitting it.

When to Leave Out ‘That’

To decide whether you can omit “that” from a sentence, check how naturally and intelligibly the sentence reads without it. Usually, you can drop “that” if it follows a verb that essentially means “to say.” This omission mimics natural speech and shouldn’t change the meaning of the sentence.

• The children claimed an ice cream break would help them study more effectively.
• She insisted she wasn’t responsible for the houseplant’s untimely death.

However, it’s usually better to keep “that” if other words fall between the verb and the dependent clause.

• The kids also said this morning that a television break would enhance their studying.
• She admitted begrudgingly that she might have contributed to the plant’s demise.

You also can usually omit “that” if it precedes a simple relative clause.

• Neither of them was particularly excited about the compromise (that) they reached.

Using ‘That’ Twice in a Row

When you’re trimming unnecessary uses of “that” from your writing, be sure to pay attention to sentences where it appears multiple times or even twice in a row (“that that”). These sentences can be grammatically correct but stylistically undesirable. For example, at BKA, we use Associated Press Style, which requires sentences to be constructed in a manner that eliminates consecutive uses of “that.”

• He confessed that that plan had been formulated on three hours of sleep.
• He confessed that they had only slept three hours when they formulated that plan.

Even if you’re not following a strict style guide, it’s often beneficial to try revising sentences to avoid using “that” too redundantly.

Using ‘That’ or ‘Which’

It can be tempting to cut back on “that” by replacing it with “which,” but these words aren’t actually interchangeable. “That” introduces information that is integral to the meaning of a sentence, while “which” precedes information that is non-essential and offset by commas.

• The first kindergarten class that all 31 students attended was miraculously free of mishaps.
• The first kindergarten class, which all 31 students attended, was miraculously free of mishaps.

In this example, each sentence has a distinct meaning. The first describes a specific class when all 31 students were present for the first time, while in the second, the attendance of all 31 kids is a non-essential detail.

Got All That?

Striking the right balance between overusing the word “that” and omitting it improperly takes a little thought, but with practice, it should become second nature. What other common words do people overuse? Tell us about it in the comments section! If you’re looking for help on grammar rules, check out some of our other GrammarSpot posts.

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Compared to many grammar concepts, sentence subjects are fairly straightforward, which is something I felt incredibly grateful for after starting to write this blog. Still, most of us content writers are guilty of making occasional mistakes with subjects, especially when they consist of multiple parts. Luckily, it’s easy to avoid common missteps by building a better understanding of compound subjects and the rules for using them.

What Is a Compound Subject?

A compound subject consists of two or more nouns, noun clauses, or noun phrases, along with a conjunction that links these parts together. Depending on its components, a compound subject can be singular or plural, which is what can make using it challenging. Determining whether a compound subject is plural or singular isn’t always easy, but it is crucial so you can follow the grammar rules of subject-verb agreement.

The easiest compound subjects to work with contain totally separate nouns that do not combine into a new item or concept. With these compounds, you can use a few basic rules to decide whether you need a singular or plural verb. When a compound subject consists of separate nouns joined by the word “and,” the verb should be plural.

Compound Subject Examples Using ‘And’:

– Facebook breaks and naps are essential parts of her daily writing routine.

– Keys and other essentials disappear amazingly quickly in this house.

If a compound subject contains the conjunction “or” or “nor,” the parts of the subject determine which verb form is appropriate. If every noun is singular, use a singular verb. For a set of plural nouns, a plural verb is necessary. If you’re working with a mix of plural and singular nouns, the verb should agree with the nearest noun.

Compound Subject Examples Using ‘Or’ or ‘Nor’:

– Neither his roommate nor his dog is delighted about the new pet cat.

– Paperwork or toys now cover most of the surfaces in what was once her office.

Spotting Singular Subjects

What happens when the nouns that form a compound subject aren’t separate? If these nouns combine to create a widely recognized idea or thing, the compound subject as a whole is considered singular, even though it contains the word “and.”

– Macaroni and cheese is somehow the healthiest thing on this menu.

– Peace and quiet is evidently a foreign concept to the new neighbors.

A compound subject also requires a singular verb if both parts of the subject refer back to the same entity. In these cases, it’s important to pay attention to the verb, since it can completely change the meaning of the sentence.

– My best friend and sister is coming with me on this trip. (Here, both nouns describe the same person: My sister is my best friend.)

– My best friend and cat are passed out on the coach. (Thankfully, the nouns are distinct in this case: I have a best friend who is not my cat.)

Compound Subjects: Singular vs. Plural

Generally, you should be wary of treating a compound subject as singular if its two parts don’t represent a widely recognized unit or concept. Otherwise, you could end up sounding like you didn’t proofread very carefully.

– Night work and weekend work is a requirement of this job.

– Publication and critical acclaim is a goal for many writers.

In these compound subject examples, you could make the case that the two nouns go together and form a new, distinct concept, but other people might not agree. In professional content writing, it’s best to watch out for these ambiguous cases and eliminate them when possible. If you can’t decide whether a compound subject is singular or plural, you can always rearrange the sentence to get a new subject that is easier to work with.

– This job requires night work and weekend work.

– Many writers aspire to achieve publication and critical acclaim.

Comments or Questions About Compound Subjects?

Even when you understand all of the compound subject rules and have lots of compound subject examples, they may be challenging to apply, particularly when you’re dealing with an unusual or complex subject. Do you have any unanswered questions or any examples of tricky compound subjects to share? Let us know in the comments section!

Clauses are often called the building blocks of sentences, and like most building materials, they aren’t all created equal. Some clauses carry weight and play an integral role within a sentence, while others primarily provide embellishment. Whether you’re writing custom web content or a novel, understanding the difference between these essential clauses and nonessential clauses, along with the rules for using each, is crucial.

 

What Is a Clause?

No, not that kind of Claus! To make sure we’re all on the same page, a clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Essential and nonessential clauses are also frequently referred to as “restrictive clauses” and “non-restrictive clauses,” and either name is acceptable. Because I like simple memory tricks, I’ve gone with the Associated Press style naming convention, which aims to make the function of each type of clause easier to remember.

 

What Are Essential Clauses?

Essential or restrictive clauses provide essential information that restricts you to understanding a sentence in a certain way. Removing one of these clauses from a sentence is a bit like deleting the telltale emoticons from a sarcastic text. You still have a functional sentence or message, but its overall meaning becomes significantly different.

– Apps that require in-game purchases will be my financial downfall.

– My neighbor’s love of music that features bagpipes is unfortunate.

In these essential clause examples, the clauses are needed to clarify what I am saying. I only spend unreasonable amounts of money on a certain type of app, and my neighbor’s obsession with a specific type of music is unfortunate.

 

Rules for Using Essential Clauses

Essential clauses should not be separated from the rest of the sentence with any type of punctuation mark, and they typically follow pronouns such as that, who or where. If you have already used that to introduce a clause earlier in the sentence, you may use which in place of a second that. However, this is the only time that you can get away with this construction.

 – The deadline which I forgot about arrived all too quickly. 

– I wasn’t surprised that the game which I missed turned out to be the most exciting one of the season.

 

What Are Nonessential Clauses?

Like its essential counterpart, a nonessential or non-restrictive clause serves to add information to a sentence. However, this type of clause can be deleted without dramatically altering the meaning of the sentence because it contains nonessential details. Here are some examples:

– My computer, which is several years old, takes even longer to start working in the morning than I do.

– Our cross-country drive, which was supposed to take us from California to Florida, was cut short just two states in.

 

Rules for Using Nonessential Clauses

Nonessential clauses should be set apart from the rest of a sentence with commas, and they should be introduced with which when they refer to inanimate objects. Pronouns such as who and where can be used when these clauses make other references. You should never use that to introduce a nonessential clause. Here are a few nonessential clause examples:

– My friend, who is a night owl, was horrified when she found out how early we needed to leave for our flight.

– I eventually found my phone in the refrigerator, which is where I lose things when I’m especially frazzled.

 

Separating the Essential From the Nonessential

If you’re not sure whether a clause is essential or nonessential, consider if the information it contains is redundant or implied. Then, ask whether the meaning of the sentence would be basically the same if you took out the clause. If so, it’s nonessential.

– Tea that is caffeinated is a key part of my late-night writing routine.

– Dr. Pepper, which is caffeinated, is a key part of my late-night writing routine.

In the first nonessential clause example, I’m distinguishing between teas that contain caffeine and other teas, which makes the information essential. In the second, I am merely mentioning that Dr. Pepper contains caffeine.

– Writers who tend to procrastinate should not be given open deadlines.

– Writers, who tend to procrastinate, should not be given open deadlines.

This sentence can work both ways because its meaning changes based on the structure. The first construction makes the questionable suggestion that only some writers procrastinate, while the second sentence implies that all writers do.

 

Keeping Your Essential and Nonessential Clauses Straight

Distinguishing between essential clauses and nonessential clauses isn’t always easy. However, understanding each type of clause and the relevant rules is key if you want to communicate more clearly and rid your writing of grammar errors. If you have any questions about this tricky topic, make sure to let us know in the comments section! If you’re looking for help on grammar rules, check out some of our other GrammarSpot posts.

I think that using poecilonyms is one of the easiest ways for writers to make their work seem more intriguing and professional. If you’re bracing yourself to learn about some new writing technique or complicated literary device, relax. “Poecilonyms” is just another word for synonyms, which you already work with on a daily basis.

 

Why Stress About Synonyms?

What are synonyms? Synonyms are words or phrases that have the same meaning as other words or phrases. As writers, why should we care about using them? One reason is that repetition usually undermines our work.

Consider how you feel while listening to someone who uses the same stock word or eccentric phrase in every other sentence. You might be amused, distracted or even annoyed by these reiterations. Readers often have similar reactions when they encounter something over and over.

Examples:

– Many people find that slowing down while writing helps them reduce repetition in their writing.

– Leaving extra time for editing can help you catch overused words most of the time.

 

Synonyms Help to Change Things Up

That phrasing made those sentences a little painful to read, but a few synonyms could smooth out the awkward patches. This isn’t the only reason that great content writers mix up their wording whenever they can, though. A varied vocabulary can make you sound more creative, informed or articulate. Finding new ways to express the same thoughts is also part of what makes writing with synonyms fun.

Examples:

– To eliminate overused words, I sometimes beg people to proofread my work for phrasing that I have exhausted.

– Considering how painful revising my own writing can be, it’s not surprising that I usually have to bribe my friends to do this editing.

 

Synonyms Allow You to Avoid Repetition

Of course, even the best writers can get stuck in linguistic ruts. One of my favorite things about working on a computer (besides the Undo command) is that discovering new words takes minimal effort. You only need a minute to search through a thesaurus online or in a word processor to start writing with synonyms.

What if you can’t find direct synonyms for terms that have precise meanings or lack widely known substitutes? You can always use paraphrased definitions.

Examples:

– Kids really appreciate the concept of synonyms. When they call each other names, for instance, they’re usually ready to break out dozens of different words that mean the same thing.

– My friend’s habit of describing everything as “vexing” quickly became frustrating and irritating.

 

Synonyms Empower You to Stay Creative

If you’re writing about a topic with specialized jargon, or if you know you have certain go-to words, try specifically searching for those terms in your work and finding synonyms for them. You might be surprised to see how much you rely on some of them. Once you focus on shaking up your wording, though, it should be easy to start expanding your vocabulary  and making even the dullest topics seem more interesting.

 

Synonyms Are Synonymous With Success

Do you have any questions or personal strategies for avoiding repetition in your own writing? What are some of your favorite synonyms to use in place of common words? Tell us about it below!

 

I used to feel pretty confident in my grasp of grammar and style rules, until my first encounter with Associated Press style (AP style) and its distinct guidelines. AP style is widely used in journalism and other professional writing, but it can still seem unfamiliar and confusing to uninitiated writers.

To make this popular style easier to understand and use, we’ve delved into tricky issues like AP style numbers in previous blogs. Today, we’ll look at another frequently misunderstood topic: when to use a colon in AP style.

When to Use a Colon in Lists

One of the most common uses for a colon is introducing a list or series of items at the end of a sentence. One common question that is asked in regards to when to use colons in lists is “Is the first word after a colon capitalized?”. In AP style, the word that begins the list or series should generally only be capitalized if it is a proper noun.

When to Use a Colon With Capitalization:

• The puppy left a trail of destroyed items in his wake: shredded papers, mangled stuffed animals and what looked like the remains of a shoe.

However, if the list or series extends over multiple sentences, you should capitalize the first word after the colon in AP Style.

When to Use a Colon Without Capitalization:

• The puppy’s owners had tried everything to address this troubling habit: They paid for professional training. They worked on keeping their house cleaner. They tried to convince themselves that this was a perfect way to get rid of clutter.

 

How to Use a Colon to Introduce Another Sentence

A colon can also introduce a complete sentence that clarifies or expands on the original sentence. In this case, AP style diverges from some style guides by requiring you to capitalize the first word after the colon.

•  We learned a sad lesson that day: Cooking projects and artwork inspired by Pinterest never come out looking remotely like the posted photos.

 

When to Use a Colon for Emphasis

Let’s talk about another common use for colons: giving emphasis. As the colon example above shows, a colon can help call attention to the word or phrase that follows it. When using a colon this way, don’t capitalize the first word after it unless the word is a proper noun.

• He believed that no good dessert recipe was complete without one thing: peanut butter.
• She believed that no good dessert recipe was complete without one thing: Nutella.

 

When to Use a Colon to Offset Dialogue, Q&A or Quotations

In AP style, colons are also used in dialogue and interviews that are printed in question-and-answer style. Here, the colons serve to separate the speakers from the quoted material.

How to Use a Colon to Separate Speakers:

• Travel buddy: I’ve been packing for this trip all week! What about you?
• Me (guiltily): Um, I basically did it all in the last 20 minutes …

Colons can also introduce quotations, and like most punctuation marks, they can be tricky to use correctly in this context. AP style makes these colon rules a little more interesting by inserting some comma guidelines in regards to quotations. If a quotation consists of a single sentence, you should introduce it with a comma and quotation marks. If the quotation is longer than one sentence or forms its own paragraph, replace the comma with a colon.

How to Use a Colon to Introduce Quotations:

• Thomas Jefferson once observed, “The most valuable of all talents is that of never using two words when one will do.”
• George R.R. Martin reportedly said: “Some writers enjoy writing, I am told. Not me. I enjoy having written.”

 

When to Use a Colon to Separate Numbers

In AP style, colons are also used to separate the elements in several listings. You should place a colon between the units of time when indicating an amount of time that has elapsed or a time of day. In legal or biblical citations, you should use a colon to break up chapters, sections or verses.

• The 2:30 p.m. cookie break was a cherished tradition at their office.
• When Christian quarterback Tim Tebow threw 316 passing yards and averaged 31.6 yards per completion in his first pro football game, some fans drew connections to the Bible verse John 3:16.

 

Additional Tips on How to Use a Colon

In case the above wasn’t already enough to memorize, here are a few other guidelines for using colons in AP style.

• Don’t place colons after sentence fragments; whatever precedes the colon should always be able to stand on its own.
• Additionally, you should never put a dash next to a colon, since the dash simply doesn’t serve any purpose in this construction.

 

Final Takeaways on When to Use a Colon in AP Style

With these AP style colon rules in mind, knowing how and when to use a colon in AP style should be much easier. If you have any unanswered questions or tips of your own to add, make sure to let us know in the comments section! Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

If you’ve heard that joke about a panda bear entering a restaurant and eating, shooting, and leaving, you know that the difference between “eats, shoots and leaves” and “eats shoots and leaves” matters. This example is more disturbing than the punctuation errors that most of us make, but it isn’t the only time that an innocent little comma can have huge effects.

Comma Rules List

Comma errors can hide your true meaning, baffle readers, and add clutter to sentences. Still, memorizing every case when you must, can’t, or maybe should use a comma can feel impossible (or maybe it’s just not the first thing that you want to spend your free time doing). Instead of putting yourself through that, bookmark this guide for using commas and utilize it whenever you need a refresher on comma rules and exceptions for the following situations.

 

 

Independent Clauses

When two independent clauses are joined with a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, nor, so, yet, for), a comma should generally be placed before the conjunction.

Comma Between Independent Clauses Examples:

– The new plant only survived for three weeks, but that was a record for their office.

However, you can usually leave out the comma if a subject doesn’t appear in the second clause.

– She vowed to pack efficiently but left home with four bulging suitcases.

Some writers also skip the comma when both clauses are short and balanced.

– He sings and she dances.

 

Lists and Series

When three or more items are included in a series or list, they should be split up with commas. Some writing styles, such as AP Style, require the omission of the comma between the last two items, which is called a serial comma. If your boss or editor doesn’t have a preference on style, either is fine, as long as you use it consistently. Consider keeping the serial comma around if it will spare readers from confusion.

Commas in a List Examples:

– Their healthy college diet consisted largely of pizza, peanut butter and jelly and grilled cheese. (Wait, the jelly does go with the peanut butter, right?)

 

Coordinate Adjectives

Commas also should be used to break up coordinate adjectives, which are adjectives that carry the same weight. If reversing the order of the adjectives turns your sentence into nonsense, they aren’t coordinate adjectives, and they don’t need a separating comma.

Commas between Coordinate Adjectives Examples:

– They heard her sputtering, aging car approaching from a block away.

– The new sports car might not have been the most practical investment. (“Sports new car” doesn’t make sense, so leave out the comma.)

 

 

Contrasting Elements

Commas can help indicate a shift in thoughts, and they should be used to split up phrases that show contrast. They also should be placed between phrases and questions.

Commas with Contrasting Elements Examples:

– She realized too late that they said the workout would be quick, not easy.

– You didn’t truly think I would be up at 4 a.m., did you?

 

Introductory Clauses and Phrases

Introductory dependent clauses and other introductory elements should be offset with commas. Words that usually start these dependent clauses include if, since, while, because, although, and when. The same rule also applies to longer prepositional phrases and infinitive phrases.

Introductory Phrase Comma Examples:

– When I started working from home, my commitment to never wearing pajamas during the day faded.

– To avoid getting sick, she quarantined her poor husband in the guest room.

 

Parenthetical Elements

As you might guess from the heading, this next section is going to be trickier when it comes to comma rules. As a refresher, parenthetical elements are just non-essential parts of a sentence. Following proper comma rules when working with these elements usually takes a little extra effort. In general, if information can be removed from your sentence without causing the whole thing to collapse, it’s non-essential, and it should appear between two commas.

Parenthetical Comma Rules List/Examples:

– His explanation of his job, which lasted for several minutes, only left her more confused.

Absolute phrases, which modify a noun or entire sentence, should also be separated with commas. The same rule applies to interjections and the names of people being directly addressed.

– Their bodies covered with scratches and grime, they finally started questioning the wisdom of entering the mud run.

However, if a non-essential word or phrase directly follows a coordinating conjunction, you don’t need to put a comma in front of it.

– The first preschool soccer game was a disaster, but in all honesty, the parents’ expectations had not been high.

You might need to spend a little extra time deciding whether some elements are essential. Be careful not to offset necessary information with commas, as this can have awkward effects or unintended implications.

– The child, who is wearing a bucket on his head, is my nephew. (This information is fairly essential if you are trying to point out your fashion-savvy nephew.)

– His obsession with George Lucas’ film series, Star Wars, had endured for more than half his life. (This makes it sound like Star Wars was George Lucas’ only film series.)

Quotes and Attributions

The comma rules for quotations can be especially frustrating because you have to worry about whether the comma goes inside or outside of the quotation marks. When an attribution follows a quotation, the comma should be placed inside the quotation marks. If an attribution introduces a quotation, the comma should appear outside the quotation marks.

Using Commas to Separate Quotes Examples:

– “Everything in moderation,” she advised, “including moderation.”

Ready for the exceptions? If you use “that” to introduce a quotation, no comma is needed. If the quote is just one word, or if it plays a part within the larger sentence, you can also skip the commas.

– He had apparently taken her reluctant “Okay” as a sign of great excitement for the impending motorcycle ride.

 

The Compulsory Commas

Are you worn out yet? The good news is that these next rules always apply, whether you’re writing short stories or landing pages. You should use commas to separate cities and states, cities and countries, dates and years, and names and titles. If these elements appear before the end of the sentence, add another comma after the state, country, year, or title. The sole exception to the second rule is when the noun is possessive or part of a compound adjective.

Comma After City or State Examples:

– Forks, Washington’s new popularity as a destination for vampire-romance novel fans was unexpected.

– Their visit to La Push, Washington, was tragically devoid of both sunlight and sparkling supernatural creatures.

– I live in Las Vegas, NV, but my neighborhood is in Summerlin.

– I’ve wanted to visit Madrid, Spain, since I was a little girl.

 

 

Commas and Pauses

Before you call it quits, take a look at one last widely misunderstood comma rule. You’ve probably been told to add a comma whenever there is a pause in your writing, right? This works sometimes, but it isn’t foolproof. If only one comma appears between the noun and the verb, the parts of a compound subject, or the parts of a compound verb, the sentence probably needs revision.

‘But’ Comma Examples:

– No: He resolved to take a brief nap, but immediately fell asleep for three hours.
– Yes: He resolved to take a brief nap but immediately fell asleep for three hours.

‘Is’ Comma Examples:

– No: The hardest part of working from home, is dedicating time to actually working.
– Yes: The hardest part of working from home is dedicating time to actually working.

 

Questions About Comma Rules?

Comma rules can be confusing for even the most experienced or grammar-obsessed writers, so don’t worry if this feels like a lot to take in. The more you use this comma rules list, the easier it will be to recognize the proper use of commas in your writing. If you have any questions, make sure to let us know below!

I’m a huge fan of abbreviations because they make communication easier and spare me from unnecessary typing. When I’m writing in Associated Press style, though, it sometimes feels like these benefits disappear, since there are so many tricky AP style rules for abbreviations to remember (and occasionally Google, if we’re being honest). To take some of the frustration out of using AP style abbreviations, today I’d like to break down the seemingly endless list of rules that most writers need to know.

 

Abbreviations Used With Numerals

When you’re working with AP style numbers, times or dates, it’s acceptable to use several standard abbreviations. These abbreviations, which include a.m., p.m., B.C., A.D. and No., are so widely known and used that you never need to write them out fully. When you’re listing dates, you also should abbreviate months that have more than five letters.

– He was horrified to realize he had stayed up until 4 a.m. watching documentaries about life in A.D. 1200.

– She was scheduled to begin work on Oct. 31, which only increased her concerns about choosing the wrong outfit for her first day.

– His birthday falling on April 1 had exposed him to years of terrible jokes and pranks.

When you’re referring to a numbered address, you can abbreviate ordinal directions and words such as boulevard and avenue. Otherwise, stay away from these abbreviations.

– She finally stopped forgetting her address when she moved to 4000 5th St., Unit 6.

– Thanks to the directions from their navigationally challenged friend, they spent an hour walking up and down E. 40th St. looking for a cross street that didn’t exist.

 

State Name Abbreviations

When the name of a state stands alone or appears after a town, city or military base, never abbreviate it; the state must always be spelled out in the body of your content and headline. This sounds pretty straightforward for an AP style rule, but remember that the AP style abbreviations for states aren’t the same as the state postal codes. Avoid using postal codes unless you’re giving an address.

– They were woefully unprepared for two feet of snow to fall during what was supposed to be a pleasant late spring visit to Denver, Colorado.

– Their reluctance to leave Fairbanks, Alaska, at the end of the trip stemmed partly from the terrifying nature of their turbulent flight into the city.

The only time you’ll abbreviate state names when following AP style rules is when you’re using them in datelines, lists, tables and mentions of political party affiliations. Use this chart to guide you:

Alabama (Ala.)	Louisiana (La.)	Ohio (never abbreviate)
Alaska (never abbreviate)	Maine (never abbreviate)	Oklahoma (Okla.)
Arizona (Ariz.)	Maryland (Md.)	Oregon (Ore.)
Arkansas (Ark.)	Massachusetts (Mass.)	Pennsylvania (Pa.)
California (Calif.)	Michigan (Mich.)	Rhode Island (R.I.)
Colorado (Colo.)	Minnesota (Minn.)	South Carolina (S.C.)
Connecticut (Conn.)	Mississippi (Miss.)	South Dakota  (S.D.)
Delaware (Del.)	Missouri (Mo.)	Tennessee (Tenn.)
Florida (Fla.)	Montana (Mont.)	Texas (never abbreviate)
Georgia (Ga.)	Nebraska (Neb.)	Utah (never abbreviate)
Hawaii (never abbreviate)	Nevada (Nev.)	Vermont (Vt.)
Idaho (never abbreviate)	New Hampshire (N.H.)	Virginia (Va.)
Illinois (Ill.)	New Jersey (N.J.)	Washington (Wash.)
Indiana (Ind.)	New Mexico (N.M.)	West Virginia (W.Va.)
Iowa (never abbreviate)	New York (N.Y.)	Wisconsin (Wis.)
Kansas (Kan.)	North Carolina (N.C.)	Wyoming (Wyo.)
Kentucky (Ky.)	North Dakota (N.D.)

Did you notice that Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas and Utah are never abbreviated? This is true in both body text and datelines.

 

Abbreviations Used With Names

When you’re writing in AP style, you should abbreviate titles that precede names and suffixes that fall afterward. Common examples of these include Mr., Mrs., Dr., Sr. and Jr. You also can abbreviate words such as company and corporation when they appear after the name of a business entity.

– Their neighbor, Dr. Gray, was less than amused about their newly licensed teen driver’s run-in with his fence.

 

Abbreviating Names of Organization

The rules for abbreviating the names of organizations depend on the context. If an abbreviation is well-known, you can use it the first time that you refer to the organization. Otherwise, wait and use it on the second mention, if at all.

– To date, three of their neighbors had made less-than-original references to FBI surveillance vans in their Wi-Fi network names.

In AP style, you shouldn’t follow the name of an organization with the abbreviation offset by parentheses or dashes. Instead, simply use the abbreviation the second time that you refer to the organization. If this structure makes the connection between the entity and the abbreviation unclear, it’s best to just skip using the abbreviation.

– To date, three of their neighbors had made less-than-original references to Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) surveillance vans … 

 

Other Rules for Abbreviations

The first letter of most abbreviations should be capitalized, but the rules for punctuation are more varied. If an abbreviation consists of several letters, you generally don’t need to place periods between the letters. However, if an abbreviation is composed of just two letters, you should include the periods. Of course, since we’re talking about AP style, there are some exceptions to the latter rule, including AP, EU and GI.

– After returning from the EU, she found the dull coloring of U.S. currency extremely disappointing.

Finally, when you’re deciding whether to use an abbreviation, it’s important to take context into account. In technical writing and tabulations, incorporating more abbreviations is often acceptable. In other forms of professional writing, abbreviations should only be used as noted above. Avoid using them as shorthand, and leave them out of headlines whenever possible.

– By some miracle, the children were only 20 min. late for their early a.m. appointment with the Dr. 

 

Common Abbreviations to Know

Lastly, it can help to memorize some of the common abbreviations that are used in writing. Here is a list of a few of them:

How do you abbreviate association?

Either assoc. or assn.

How do you abbreviate appointment?

The most common abbreviation for appointment is appt.

How do you abbreviate account?

It can be abbreviated as acct.

How do you abbreviate professional?

Professional is typically abbreviated as pro.

 

Using AP Style Abbreviations With Ease

Learning all of these AP style rules for abbreviations can be tough, so there’s no shame in bookmarking a style guide that you trust and checking it when in doubt. Do you have any memory tricks or other pointers for keeping all of these conventions straight? I would love to hear from you in the comments section! Click here if you’d like to freshen up on some more AP Style rules.

Do you want your writing to affect readers’ opinions or have some other effect? Do you find logical arguments or affective language more effective? Do the similar spellings and related meanings of affect vs. effect make you want to throw in the towel and give up on ever keeping them straight?

If so, you’re not alone; many professional writers struggle with these commonly confused words. Read on and learn how to conquer affect vs. effect, and affective vs. effective once and for all.

 

The Affect vs. Effect Definitions

Here is the definition of affect and effect:

– Affect means to influence or act on something.

– Effect is a change that results from an action or cause.

 

How To Use Affect

Affect is often used as a verb that acts on an object. The word originates from the Latin “afficere,” which meant, “to do, act on, or have influence on.” However, affect can also mean, “to act or make a pretense of something.” If you note that this less common definition involves a display of emotions, you should have no trouble remembering a third use of the word. In psychiatry, affect is a noun describing a person’s outward emotional response.

Affect Examples:

– He is convinced that his game-day rituals actually affect the course of the game.

– The teenager tried, unconvincingly, to affect an attitude of indifference.

– The psychiatrist observed the patient’s uncharacteristically happy affect.

 

How To Use Effect

Effect carries various nuanced meanings, but most relate to final results or outcomes. Effect developed from the French word “efet,” meaning completion, and the Latin word “effectus,” meaning accomplishment. An effect is an achievement or outcome that results from a cause or action. Effect can also be a verb; it means to accomplish something or directly make something happen.

Effect Examples:

– The side effects of the medication made staying awake through the meeting a challenge.

– They listened to several politicians explain how they would effect change if elected.

The Affective vs. Effective Definitions

Here is the definition of affective vs. effective:

– Affective means influencing or relating to the emotions.

– Effective means causing a desired result or reaching a functional state.

 

How To Use Affective

Remember the less common meanings of affect that were mentioned earlier? Affective, which means “influencing, pertaining to, or arising from emotions,” relates closely to those uses of the word.

Affective Examples:

– Affective disorders are psychological conditions that influence mood.

– Affective computing involves designing systems that detect or respond to human emotion.

 

How To Use Effective

Effective is an adjective used to indicate that something produces a desired effect or has reached an operational state.

Effective Examples:

– Not surprisingly, the fad diet was not as effective as promised.

– The new law will not be effective until the following year.

 

Affect vs. Effect: Keeping Everything Straight

If you’re feeling overwhelmed, you can always fall back on these rules to remember the most commonly used meanings of affect vs. effect:

You can’t affect something without taking action.

An effect is an end result.

Remember, these simple rules also apply to when you’re using affective vs. effective. Are there other commonly confused words that you sometimes stumble over? What about any affect vs. effect examples that help you keep the rules straight? Let us know by commenting below!

Most writers are familiar with the rule that every sentence should contain a subject, verb and complete thought. Look around, though, and you’ll see this rule broken often, sometimes on purpose, other times less so. Whether you think sentence fragments add flair to writing or show poor proofreading, it’s clear that using sentence fragments on accident or in the wrong place isn’t ideal. Read on for a refresher on finding and fixing sentence fragments that need a little extra attention.

 

How to Identify Sentence Fragments

The simplest fragments are sentences that completely lack a subject or verb. Some contain words that resemble subjects or verbs but don’t quite fulfill those roles. Here are some sentence fragment examples:

– The hour before my writing deadline. Too much caffeine. Blank screen. Desperation.

– Other writers struggling with the same problem.

Unfortunately, there is no lazy fix for these fragments; you just have to go through and add in the missing pieces.

– The hour before my writing deadline usually involves too much caffeine, a blank screen and desperation.

– It’s consoling to think of other writers struggling with the same problem.

 

Unfinished Thoughts Can Also Be Sentence Fragments

Sentences that contain subjects and verbs can still be fragments. These sentence fragments are often nearly functional sentences that have been reduced to dependent clauses because of one little word. If you find yourself asking questions because a sentence didn’t express a full thought, you’ve found a fragment. Here are some examples of this type of fragmented sentence:

– I was getting caught up on work. Until I started shopping online and forgot about writing.

– Because I naively thought that a break would improve my productivity.

You can make these poor almost-sentences whole by adding them to the clauses that they depend on. In some cases, you can also simply delete the extra word or unnecessary punctuation.

– I was getting caught up on work until I started shopping online and forgot about writing.

– I naively thought that a break would improve my productivity.

 

The Bottom Line: Fix Those Sentence Fragments!

Many writers know these rules but occasionally break them for the sake of style. Fragments can add emphasis, make dialogue realistic or help writing feel less formal. If you’re writing for creative or personal purposes, feel free to bend the rules. For professional writing, though, play it safe and work on fixing sentence fragments.

Do you have any other questions specific to how to fix sentence fragments? Or, do you have questions about other writing rules that seem breakable in some settings and compulsory in others? Let us know in the comments section!

If you write factual content or realistic fiction, it’s almost impossible to avoid working with acronyms. Between “alphabet soup” government agencies and absurdly named pieces of legislation, I often find my writing overrun with these abbreviations. Given the ubiquity of acronyms, knowing the relevant grammar and style rules is crucial. Since Associated Press style is one of the more widely used writing standards, learning the AP style rule for acronyms and abbreviations is an essential starting point for most freelance writers.

 

What Are Acronyms?

So what are acronyms? As a quick reminder, acronyms are a specific type of abbreviation. An acronym is formed from the first letters of the words that make up a phrase. Acronyms are pronounced as words, rather than as series of letters.

Examples of Acronyms vs Abbreviations:

Acronyms: NASA, NATO, UNICEF

Abbreviations: AAA, FBI, NYC

 

Using Acronyms in AP Style

If you’re writing in AP style, you are never explicitly required to use acronyms. If you choose to utilize one, you should usually begin by writing out the full phrase that makes up the acronym.

– Someone clearly put a little thought into naming the Tackling Excessive Standardized Testing Act.

Although you may have been taught to follow this initial reference with the acronym offset in dashes or parentheses, this isn’t the convention in AP style. Simply use the acronym on the second reference.

AP Style Acronym Examples:

– Someone clearly put a little thought into naming the Tackling Excessive Standardized Testing (TEST) Act.  

– While we’re talking about legislative acronyms, the Eliminating Government-funded Oil-painting Act also deserves a mention. Due to the careful use of hyphens and capitalization, I get to cite this as the EGO Act.  

Sometimes, a so-called acronym will omit letters from the words that comprise it or include extra, unrelated letters. If the connection between the original phrase and the acronym isn’t clear, don’t use the acronym. This is a simple acronym rule.

– The Sugar Sweetened Beverages Act of 2015 also has a supposedly clever name. Unfortunately, the SWEET Act doesn’t derive its acronym from the first letters of each word. (This isn’t a real acronym, so this citation isn’t advisable.)  

Some acronyms are well-known enough to be used on first reference, but it’s important to consider your audience to determine whether this is the case. It’s also best to use restraint when deciding whether to place acronyms in headlines. With AP style acronyms, using well-known acronyms in this context is acceptable. However, incorporating an obscure acronym to make a headline more concise is frowned upon.

 

Capitalizing and Punctuating AP Acronyms

Typically, acronyms consist of all capital letters and do not include periods. If an acronym is more than five letters long, the general AP style acronym rules state that you should capitalize only the first letter. However, some longer acronyms, such as UNESCO, appear fully capitalized by convention. It never hurts to check the AP Stylebook or a direct source, such as the organization or legislation in question, to determine which convention to use.

– In 2015, the onslaught of legislative acronyms inspired the Accountability and Congressional Responsibility On Naming Your Motions Act. If it hadn’t been an April Fools joke, the ACRONYM Act could have made writing about legislation much duller for easily amused people like me.

 

Eliminating Errors With Acronyms

Although the AP style rule for acronyms is fairly straightforward next to other AP style conventions, using AP acronyms correctly in professional writing can still take some practice. If you have any advice for working with acronyms or any lingering questions, please let us know in the comments section!